Agriculture Geography UPSC Notes

Shifting Agriculture

Shifting agriculture is the primitive form of subsistence farming in which a batch of forest is cleared by cutting or burning vegetation that's is why it is called slash-and-burn agriculture. Crops cultivated for two to three years after which declining soil fertility forces farmer to abundant the land and move to a new plot, leaving the old land fallow for natural regeneration.

It is practices in different parts of India and world however, with different names that include

Challenges of Shifting Agriculture

1. Economic Challenges
   • Low productivity due to traditional farming methods.
   • No permanent irrigation or mechanization.
   • Poor market integration and low farm income.
   • Limits agriculture commercialization.
2. Environmental Challenges
   • Deforestation and biodiversity loss.
   • Soil erosion and nutrients depletion.
   • Carbon emission from burning vegetation.
   • Increased landslides and flood risks in hilly regions.
   • Shortened fallow cycles prevents forest regeneration.
3. Social Challenges
   • Food insecurity due to unstable production.
   • Poverty among tribal communities.
   • Limited access to education, healthcare and infrastructure.
   • Conflicts over forest land and tenure rights.

Government Initiatives

• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) for climate resilient farming.
• Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) to promote horticulture in hilly regions.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) for irrigation.
• Van Dhan Vikas Kendra (VDVK) under TRIFED to improve tribal livelihood through minor forest produced.
• Forest Right Act 2006, recognizing community forest rights.
• Promotion of terrace farming, agroforestry, bamboo cultivation, rubber, species and horticulture as sustainable alternatives
• Soil Health Card Scheme and watershed development programs.
• Financial support through Northeast Council and Ministry of Development of Northeast region (DoNER) for sustainable livelihood projects.

Rather than imposing a complete ban, policy should modernize shifting cultivation by integrating agroforestry, longer fallow periods, scientific land management, secure land right and market access, respecting indigenous knowledge while introducing sustainable technologies can improve both tribal livelihood and ecological conservation.

Subsistence Agriculture

Subsistence agriculture is system of farming in which production is primarily meant for household consumption rather than the market. It is characterized by small and fragmented land holdings, low mechanization, family labour, traditional seeds and low capital investment.

Why Subsistence Agriculture is a major challenge?

According to economic survey 2025-26 and the agriculture statics at glance over 86% India's farmers are small and marginal. The operation holding is also fragmented thus limits economics of scale. Its consequences are

• Low productivity and limited adoption of modern technology.
• Low market surplus, restricting farmers income.
• Limited access to institutional credits, irrigation and quality input.
• Higher vulnerability to climate change, increasing income instability.

According to economic survey 2025 nearly half of India's workforce i.e. 45% depends on agriculture but agriculture contributes only around 16 to 18% of GDP, reflecting disguised unemployment, seasonal unemployment, low labour productivity.

Thus subsistence farming perpetuates rural poverty, low investment and slow agriculture transformation, hindering India's goal for becoming a global competitive agriculture economy.

Government Initiatives

• Farmer Producer Organization (FPOs) to aggregate small farmers, promotion of land leasing and consolidation.
• PM-Kisan, PMFBY, PMKSY and the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund to improve irrigation and storage.
• Expansion of digital agriculture, precision farming, mechanization and climate resilient agriculture.
• Diversification towards horticulture, dairying, fisheries and agro-processing.

Transforming subsistence farming into market oriented technology driven and climate resilient agriculture is essential for achieving higher farm income, food security and inclusive rural development in lime with the vision of Viskshit Bharat@2047.

Mixed Farming

Mixed farming is an agricultural system in which crop cultivation is integrated with livestock rearing such as dairy, poultry, sheep, pigs, goats fisheries, etc. on the same farm. Its aim to maximize resource efficiency, diversify income and reduce production risks.

India has immense potential for mixed farming because about 80% of operational holdings are small and marginal, making diversification essential for sustainable development.

How Mixed Agriculture improve Indian Agriculture?

• Income Diversification Livestock provides regular cashflow, reducing dependency on seasonal crop income.
• Risk Reduction Crop failure due to drought or floods can be compensated by income from milk, eggs, meat or fish.
• Improved Soil fertility Farmyard manure and compost reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers.
• Efficient Resource Recycling Crop residue become fodder while livestock waste is converted into organic manure or biogas.
• Employment Generation Creates year round rural employment particularly for women.
• Nutritional Security Increases availability of milk, eggs, meat and other protein rich sources.

Government Initiatives

• Rashtriya Gokul Mission for indigenous cattle improvement.
• National Livestock Mission for sheep, goat, poultry and fodder development.
• Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund for dairy and meat processing infrastructure.
• Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) to integrate fisheries with farming.
• National dairy plant and dairy cooperative expansion.
• Soil Health Card Scheme and Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) to promote integrate nutrient management.
• Promotion of integrated farming system by Indian Council of Agriculture Research.

Mixed farming transforms agriculture from single income, high risk activity into diversified and resilient production system by integrating crops with livestock, fisheries and allied activities. It can double farmers income, enhance nutritional security, improve soil health and make Indian agriculture more sustainable and climate resilient.

Commercial Farming

Commercial farming is a system of agriculture in which crops and livestock are produce primarily for sale in the market rather than for household consumption. It is characterized by large scale production, mechanization, high capital investment, improve seeds, fertilizers, irrigation and integration with domestic and global markets.

How can Commercial Farming improve Indian Agriculture?

• Enhances farmers income through greater market surplus.
• Increase agriculture productivity via mechanization and scientific farming.
• Promotes crop diversification towards high value crops such as shoots, vegetables, species, floriculture, medicinal plant and plantation crops.
• Boost agro-processing and value addition generating rural employment.
• Improves agriculture exports and strengthens India's position in global value chain.
• Encourages private investment, contract farming and modern supply chain.
• Facilitates adoption of precision agriculture, digital technologies and climate smart farming.

Government Initiatives

• Formation and promotion of 10 thousand farmers produce organizations.
• Agriculture Infrastructure Fund for warehouses, cold chains and processing.
• e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) for transparent digital marketing.
• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY) for food processing and value addition.
• PM-KISHAN, PM-FBY, PM-KSY for income support, crop insurance and irrigation.
• Digital agriculture mission promoting AI, drones and precision farming.
• National Mission on Edible Oil - Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) and horticulture mission for high value agriculture.