Gupta Period- Administration, Society and Economic Life

The Nature of Society and Administration of the Gupta Period

The kings of the Gupta Empire adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Paramabhattaraka, etc.

The kingdom, called Rajya/Desh/Mandala, was divided into:

1. Bhukti: A province governed by a high-ranking imperial officer called Uparika and sometimes by royal princes.

2. Vishaya: Similar to the present-day district, administered by a Vishayapati, who was often assisted by a council of Vishayamahattaras or representatives of local guilds, such as Nagarashreshthi, Sarthavaha, and Prathama Kulika.

3. Vithi: In densely populated regions, particularly in northern India, Vishayas were further divided into smaller subunits called Vithis, similar to modern-day towns, managed by officials called Ayuktakas.

4. Pura or Nagar: Large cities and major urban centres had specialised municipal governors who maintained public safety, infrastructure, and local records. They were assisted by a local town council called Pura Parishad.

The fundamental and lowest administrative unit of the empire was the Gram, or village, headed by a Gramika or Gramadhyaksha, assisted by local village elders called Mahattaras or Gramavriddhas.

The land revenue was the main source of state income. Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions, such as:

• Kshetra: Land under cultivation.

• Khila: Cultivable land lying fallow or out of cultivation.

• Aprahata: Forest land.

• Gopata Sara: Pasture land.

• Vastu: Residential or habitable land.

• Usara: Barren land.

Different land measurement units were used, such as Nivartana, Kulyavapa, Dronavapa, Adhavapa, and Pataka.

During the Gupta period, the standard rate of land revenue was generally one-sixth of the produce from the land and was known as Bhaga. This rate could sometimes go as high as one-fourth, depending upon factors such as the quality of the land and the types of crops grown. Land revenue was collected both in cash and in kind.

Feudalism became more prominent under the Guptas due to land grants with fiscal and administrative rights to priests and officials. The three popular types of land grants were:

1. Agrahara/Brahmadeya: Land given to a group of Brahmins, who used it to maintain their religious practices and promote education.

2. Brahmadeya: This was more personalised and given to a Brahmin to support him and his family.

3. Devadana/Devagrahara: Land given to temples, monasteries, and other religious establishments and meant for Brahmins as well as non-Brahmins.

The epigraphic evidence of land grants to state officials is limited, though such a practice cannot be ruled out. The designations of officials, such as Bhogika and Bhogapala, suggest that some officials may have been remunerated through land grants. The land grants were formally recorded on copper plate inscriptions called Tamra Shasana. These inscriptions provided details of tax exemptions, boundaries, and the transfer of administrative and judicial rights along with the land.

Many villages were tax-free, and royal police or soldiers were barred from entering them, shifting fiscal and administrative control to local authorities. Historians such as R.S. Sharma are of the opinion that land grants during the late ancient and early medieval periods resulted in:

1. A weak centralised political authority and strong provincial or local political authority.

2. The emergence of an administrative structure based on the control and ownership of land.

3. The creation of a land-people relationship based upon the distribution of power and obligations between feudal lords and overlords.

Several inscriptions of the Gupta period refer to the emergence of serfdom, which meant that peasants were attached to the land when it was donated or granted. This created conditions of bondage or modified slavery and led to the practice of Vishti/Begar. Feudalism also led to the practice of sub-infeudation, as donated land could be transferred by the donees on certain terms.

Social and Economic Life of the Gupta Period

The Gupta period witnessed the increasing rigidity of the caste system. Fa-Hien gives an account of the plight of the Shudras, which provides evidence of the practice of untouchability. The untouchables came to be referred to by terms such as Chandala or Antyaja.

Land grants to Brahmins on a large scale suggest that Brahminical supremacy continued during the Gupta period. The term Dvija, that is, twice-born, was used for the upper three varnas. Large-scale transfers of land and land revenue rights gave rise to the new caste status of Kayasthas, who performed the jobs of scribes.

There were various categories of slaves during the Gupta age. Prisoners of war were often reduced to the status of slaves. Drunkards, gamblers, etc., who were unable to repay their debts were often compelled to sell themselves as slaves.

The status of women was subordinate to that of men. The period witnessed the practices of Sati, child marriage, and dowry. The earliest epigraphic evidence of Sati is found in the Eran inscription of Bhanugupta, dated to 510 CE, in the Sagar district of Madhya Pradesh. It records the death of a military commander named Goparaja, who fought alongside the Gupta king Bhanugupta against the Hunas. After his death in battle, his wife voluntarily immolated herself on his funeral pyre.

Religion played a central role in Gupta society. Hinduism was the predominant faith and enjoyed state patronage. Buddhism and Jainism also coexisted, with their own monastic communities patronised by certain sections of society.

The Gupta age is renowned for its achievements in education and intellectual pursuits. Nalanda University was founded by the Gupta king Kumaragupta. The Gupta age is often regarded as a period of prosperity, stability, and cultural brilliance in ancient India.

Economically, it combined a flourishing agrarian base, active internal and external trade, a strong monetary system, and vibrant urban centres. The popular types of coins were gold coins called Dinara, silver coins called Rupaka, introduced primarily by Chandragupta II after his conquest of the Western Kshatrapas, and copper coins called Kakini. A massive number of Gupta gold coins were discovered at Bayana in Rajasthan. The coins contain images of Hindu gods and goddesses, with inscriptions in Sanskrit using the Brahmi script.