Pollution Types, Impacts and Abatement Measures UPSC

In April 2025, SC declined to relax Delhi NCR restriction on fire crackers and supported green crackers.

In November 2025, SC raised concerns about children participating in physical sports during severs air pollution periods.

In September 2026, CAQM advised Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh to avoid scheduling school physical sports in such months following the November 2025 Supreme Court verdict.

Major Acts

• Air Prevention and Control of Pollution, 1981
  • This is the principle dedicated Indian legislation for air pollution.
  • It was enacted in 1981, partly reflecting India's commitment following 1972 Stockholm conference.
  • Its objective are
    • prevention of air pollution
    • control of air pollution
    • abatement of air pollution
    • eastablishment and empowerment of polltuion control board.
  • Intuitional instructionn under Air Act.
    • CPCB
      • It coordinates environmental pollution control.
      • Advises Central Government
      • Lays down standards
      • Collects and disseminates information
      • Coordinates SPCBs
    • SPCBs
      • It implement
        • act at state level
        • inspect industries
        • grant consent
        • prescribe emission standards within their legal mandate
        • monitor compliances
        • take enforcement action
• Air Act Amendment through Jan Vishwas, 2023
  • Through this amendment one important change was introduced as the introduction of Section 21A, which empowers central government in consultation with CPCB to issue guidelines concerning grant, refusal or cancellation of consent by SPCBs.
  • Every violation of environment legislation does not automatically means imprisonment the jan vishwas reforms have decriminalized certain offenses and shifted to some monetary policy only
• Environment Protection Act, 1986
  • It is India's umbrella environmental legislation.
  • It gives the central government wide power to
    • protect environmental quality
    • prescribe standards
    • regulate industrial location
    • restrict hazardous substances
    • issue direction
    • frame rules
    • take emergency measures.
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
  • India notified revised NAAQS in 2009.
  • It covers 12 pollutants
    • SO₂
    • NO₂
    • PM10
    • PM2.5
    • Ozone
    • CO
    • NH₃
    • PB
    • Benzene
    • Benzopyrene
    • Arsenic
    • Nickel
• National Air Quality Index
  • It was launched in 2014.
  • It converts pollution information into numbers, category, colour and health implication.
  • It use 8 pollutants
    • PM10
    • PM2.5
    • SO₂
    • NO₂
    • CO
    • Ozone
    • PB
    • Lead

• National Clean Air Program (NCAP)
  • It was launched in 2019.
  • Its initial target was
    • 20-30% reduction in PM by 2024 relative to baseline of 2017-18.
  • Its target have been revised i.e. up to 40% reduction in PM10 by 2025-26 using 2017-18 baseline.
  • It covers 130 cities under this program.
  • Program operates across 24 states and UTs.
  • NCAP is not a single pollution control law. It is an umbrella program coordinating
    • transport like EV, BS6, traffic management
    • road dust
    • construction
    • industrial emission
    • urban planning
  • According to 2025-26 updates out of 130 NCAP cities
    • 108 recorded lower annual PM10 compare to 2017-18.
    • 72 cities achieved more than 20% reduction
    • 26 cities achieved 40% reduction
    • 14 cities meet NAAQS for PM10.
    • 62 cities meet NAAQS PM2.5
• PRANA Portal
  • PRANA is equal to regulation portal for regulation of air pollution in non-attainment cities.
  • It uses NCAP implementation.
• Swachh vayu sarvekshan
  • It was launched under NCAP framework.
  • It asses cities based on
    • pollution control measures
    • implementation of clean air action plan
    • source specific interventions
    • improvement in air quality
• Bharat Stage
  • In shifted to BS-VI from BS-IV in April 2020 directly.
  • BS-VI substantially tightened emission norms for
    • NO_x
    • Hydrocarbons
    • Carbon monoxide.
• Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
  • It was needed because the problem of air pollution has not city specific solution it is air shed problem which includes Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan Thus CAQM functions
    • coordinate NCR states
    • formulate air quality strategies
    • deal with crop residue burning
    • regulate industries and vehicles
    • overseas GRAP
• GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan)
  • It is like emergency response mechanism based on worsening AQI, forecast and meteorological conditions.
  • GRAP was revised in 2025. It includes

Water Pollution

Addition of certain substances to water such as organic, inorganic, biological, radiological, heat which degrades quality of water, so that it becomes unfit for use. Water pollution is not only confined to surface water but also to groundwater i.e. ocean and sea.

Sources of Water Pollution

• Fixed point source
  • In this case pollutants travel directly from source to water, point sources are easy to regulate because these have fixed location like industrial effluents, municipal sewage drainage.
• Diffused or non-fixed point source
  • It includes agricultural waste, acid rain, human fecal waste, etc.

Measurement of Quality of water or Level of Pollution

• Dissolved oxygen
  • The amount of dissolved oxygen is important to support aquatic life. The presence of dissolved oxygen up to 6-8mg/l is ideal to support aquatic life. If it becomes 5mg/l aqua system is called oxygen stressed and if it become 2-3mg/l it is called hypoxic environment.
• Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
  • Amount of dissolved oxygen required by various organisms to break down organic material present in water body at certain temperature over specific period of time.
  • BOD is measured in ppm (parts per million).
  • The BOD is directly proportional to the amount of organic waste present in water.
• Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
  • It measures capacity of water to consume oxygen during
    • decomposition of organic material
    • oxidation of inorganic material, e.g. ammonia, nitrate present in contaminated water.
• Most Permeable Number (MPN)
  • Water pollutant with organic waste such as sewage, sludge have high population of bacteria like E.coli and coliform can be detected and counted.
  • Coliform are present in human intestine so there presence in water is indication of presence of human waste in water (fecal waste).
• Total Dissolved Salt (TDS)
  • It is amount of salt present in the water.

Problems of Water Pollution

• Eutrophication
  • Already done
• Bioaccumulation
  • Already done
• Biomagnification
  • Already done
• Important diseases like:
  • Minamata disease – Methylmercury (Minamata Convention, 2013)
  • Itai-itai disease – Cadmium poisoning
  • Ouch-Ouch disease – Cadmium (1950s, Japan)
  • Nitrate poisoning – Blue Baby Syndrome
    • In this condition, haemoglobin becomes non-functional, and its oxygen-carrying capacity is drastically reduced.
  • Endosulfan
    • It is pesticide.
    • It is now globally ban under stock Home Convection.
  • Ketoprufen
    • It is ban to save vulture as it interferes with calcium metabolism and thus promotes rupturing of eggs.
  • Diclofenac
    • It is banned in India since 2006.

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• Biomanipulation
  • Introduction of large fish into eutrophic ecosystem to consume algae with faster rate to restore ecosystem.
• Bioremediation
  • It is use of microorganisms like bacteria and fungi to degrade environmental contaminants into less toxic form.
• Bioventing
  • Supply of air and nutrients through well or pipe to assimilate growth of bacteria.
• Bio-sparging
  • Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase the level of oxygen to support high bacterial growth to fasten decomposition of organic substances.

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• Arsenic Contamination
  • It affects about 21 states of India, where arsenic level is higher than BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard) stipulated permissible limit of 0.01mg/l.
  • The Ganga Brahmaputra Meghna river basin states are worst affected.
  • Arsenic causes skin diseases like skin cancer, cancer of gallbladder, kidney, lung, disease, black foot disease and reproductive disorder.

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Oil Spill

• An oil spill is the accidental and deliberate release of crude oil, petroleum into marine environment.
• Since oil is less dense than seawater, it generally form a surface which spreads under the influence of wind, wave and current.

Major causes

• Man-made causes
  • Container-Ship accident.
  • Leakage from offshore oil platforms and pipelines. - Illegal discharge.
  • Port and refinery accident.
  • Poor handling of petroleum products.
  • War or sabotage.
• Natural Causes
  • Natural seepage of hydrocarbon from the seabed.

In may 2025, MSCELSA 3 ship meet and accident of the coast of Kerala.

How oil spill affects ecosystems?

• Physical effect
  • Smothering
    • Oil coats feathers, corals, birds, etc.
    • Marine animals can suffer respiratory problems.
    • Birds lose waterproofing property of feathers and die out of hypothermia and drowning
  • Reduced light penetration
  • Oxygen stressed
• Chemical toxicity
  • Oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) such as
    • Naphthalene
    • Anthracene
    • Phenanthrene
    • Pyrene.
  • These chemicals cause
    • toxicity to fish, larva and eggs.
    • Impaired reproduction.
    • Developmental abnormalities.
    • DNA damage
• Food Chain effect
  • Bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
  • Mangroves
    • New metaphors are blocked
  • Corals
    • Tissues are damaged
    • Photosynthesis is restricted
• Economic Impact
  • Fisheries lost.
  • Aquaculture lost.
  • Affects tourism.
  • Affects coastal community.
  • Financial burden on government to contain ecosystem, public health.

How to contain oil spills?

• Physical Method
  • Use of floating booms/barriers to check widespread of oil
  • Skimmers
    • These are devices which physically collect oil from water surface.
  • Sorbent
    • These are oil absorbing material which sock oil.
  • Vacuum pumping
    • Oil-water mixture can be pump form relatively calm water surface.
  • Use of controlled fire.
• Chemical Methods
  • Use of chemical substance which break down oil.
• Biological methods
  • It is called bioremediation.
  • In this microorganisms are use to degrade oil. e.g. Marinobacter, pseudomonas, rhodococcus, alcani vorax

Coastal Sand Mining

Coastal sand mining means extraction of beach sand, heavy mineral bearing such as ilmenite, rutile, zircon and monazite.

Impact of Coastal Sand Mining

• Coastal erosion
• Loss of sand dunes.
• Habitat destruction.
• Sea turtle nesting.
• Ground water is mixed with marine salt water.
• Lost of mangroves and wetlands.
• Marine food web is affected.
• Climate resilience is compromised.

How Coastal Sand Mining is regulated in India?

• Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019
• Environmental Impact Assessment Framework, 2006
  • Any activity including legal need to ger prior permission from Ministry of environment if it is affecting ecological sensitivity.
• Mines and Minerals Regulation Act, 1957
  • State government has power under section 23C to make rules to prevent illegal mining, transportation and storage of minerals.
  • Beach Sand Containing Minerals
    • This is a special category
    • Beach sand may contain monazite, which contains thorium rare earth mineral element.
    • Mining of atomic mineral is therefore subject to additional control.
• Coastal Regulation Zone, 2019
  • Coastal regulation zone, regulation are to regulate various activities in the coastal areas which are ecologically sensitive.
  • Depending upon their ecological sensitivity, the various activities are also regulated. e.g. developmental human activities.
  • As per 2019 CRZ act CRZ is divided in IV

How do sand mining in river bed river ecology?

• Groundwater depilation.
• Bank erosion.
• Habitat destruction.
• Loss of organisms
• Fish reproduction is affected.
• Increased turbidity
  • Poor photosynthesis.
• Riparian vegetation damage
  • Destabilizes river bank
• Water quality deterioration
• Reduce ecological resilience
• Flood drought
• Loss of biodiversity.

Thermal Pollution

The word thermal means related to heat. Thermal pollution means unwanted changes occurring in environment due to higher temperature but this term is generally related to water bodies. Thus thermal pollution also known as thermal discharge. It is undesired heating of river, lake, ponds, seawater by human activities making it unhealthy to aquatic organisms, animals and humans.

Causes

• Sudden release of large volume of hot water into the aquatic ecosystem from the industries like iron-steel, nuclear power plants, etc. where large volume of water is used as coolant.
• Chemically charged water from urban sewage system, chemical intensive industries like pharmaceuticals, hospital discharge, cotton industries, sugar industries, paper industries, etc. Such chemically charged water increases temperature of water up to 5-10°C. Due to this
  • Thermal sock is created that is sudden increase in temperature.
  • It reduces oxygen dissolving capacity.
  • Increase biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand.
  • Fish kill.
  • Forces out migration of marine organisms.

Solutions

• No untreated water, urban waste, solid waste, industrial affluence should be allowed to enter into aquatic system untreated.
• Water used as a coolant should be stored, reused, allowed to enter into aquatic system gradually only when its temperature becomes normal.

Nosie Pollution

Noise pollution refers to unwanted, excessive or harmful sound that disturbs human beings, wildlife and the environment and adversely affects health and quality of life. It measured in decibel (dB), which accounts for human hearing sensitivity and averages noise over a period. Unlike many other pollutants noise is transient but cumulative in its health effects. The major concern is continuous exposure to high intensity noise particularly in urban areas.

Major Sources

• Transport like road, rail, airport.
• Construction
• Heavy industries
• Socio-cultural noise like firecrackers, weddings, religious event, political public gathering.
• Domestic noise like household appliances, television, radio, music system, etc.

Effects of Noise Pollution

• Human Health
  • Auditory effects
  • Non-auditory effects like sleep disorder, stress, anxiety, headache, reduced concentration, cardiovascular diseases.
• Wildlife and ecosystem
  • High noise mask animal communication and mating calls.
  • Disturb breeding and feeding behaviour.
  • Changes migration pattern.
  • Can interfere with predator-prey interaction

Solution and Control Measures

• Source Control i.e. there should not be loud noise beyond permissible limit. The ambient noise is centred in India suggest:

These standards are prescribed under the Noise Pollution Regulation and Control Rules, 2000.

• Traffic Management
• Urban Planning
  • Appropriate zonation of commercial, industrial and residential activities.
  • Development of green belts across city between commercial spaces and industrial spaces.
  • Sound insulated buildings.
• Regulation on loud speakers in terms of decibel, time and for this strict monitoring is done.
• Construction site management.
• Technological measures i.e. noise mapping.
• Civic sense
  • No unnecessary honking.
  • Responsible use of loud speakers.
  • Public awareness and community participation.

Legal Framework in India

• Environment Protection Act, 1986
  • It empowers central government to take measures for protection and improvement of environmental quality.
• Noise Pollution Regulation and Control Rules, 2000
  • It is principal legal instrument specially dealing with environmental nose.
  • Under this ambient noise standards for industrial, commercial, residential and silence zones are regulated.
  • Under silence zones hospitals, education institutions and courts are generally included.

Plastic Pollution

It is accumulation of plastic products and microplastics in terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystem due to high production, single use consumption, poor segregation, recycling gaps and leakage into the environment.

Major Sources

• Domestic like carry bags, food containers, bottles.
• Industrial like packaging material, agriculture mulching films, irrigation pipes, fertilizers containers.
• Healthcare like IV bags, syringes.
• Fisheries like abundant ghost nets.
• Urban centres.

Major Environment Impact

• Terrestrial ecosystem
  • Blocks drains causes urban flooding.
  • Reduces soil fertility.
  • Affects nutrient cycling.
• Aquatic ecosystem
  • River's transport land based plastic to ocean.
  • Plastic caused ingestion, entanglement and habitat damage to fish, turtles, birds and marine mammals.
  • Floating plastics can transport invasive organisms and pathogens.
• Microplastic fragments.
  • The plastic which has size less than 5mm are called microplastics. It has tow major sources:
    • Primary Source
      • These are manufactured in industries.
    • Secondary
      • Fragmentation of large plastic items.
      • It is found in water, soil, air, food and human associated environments.
      • It can absorb pollutants and enters into food web including food for humans.
• Chemical Pollutions
  • Plastic addictive such as plasticizers, flame retardants, stabilizers may leach into environment.
• Climate Impact
  • Plastic production is largely fossil fuel based, its production, transportation and disposal generate greenhouse gas emission.

Why Plastic Pollution Persists

• Low cost and convenience
• Rapid growth of package goods and e-commerce.
• Poor source of segregation
• Inadequate collection and segregation
• Recycling can not solve problem because plastic can be downcycled and eventually becomes waste.

Indian Policy Framework

• Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016
  • Mandate responsibilities for waste generators, local bodies, producers and other stake holders.
  • Emphasis source segregation, collection, recycling and environmentally sound disposal.
  • 2021 Amendment and 2022 Implementation
    • India prohibited unidentified single use plastic (SUP) from July 2022.
• EPR Guidelines
  • Producers, importers and brand owners have responsibility for managing plastic packaging after consumption.
  • It targets collection and recycling
  • It promotes accountability across the plastic value chain.
  • It creates a shift from "Producer Dispose" to "Producer Responsibility"

Government Initiatives

• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
• Plastic Management Rules, 2016/2021.
• EPR Guidelines for plastic packaging
• Swachhata hi Seva campaign
• Promotion of material recovery facility, waste segregation and recycling.
• National Mission for clean Ganga.
• Promotion of circular economy approaches and resource recovery.
  • It believe in 5R approach
    • Refuse,
    • Reduce,
    • Reuse,
    • Repair,
    • Recycle

E-waste

It is discarded electrical and electronics components including computers, mobile phone, tv, refrigerator, ACs, batteries and other electronic components and gadgets.

E-waste is a dual challenge, a hazardous waste challenge as well as opportunity of urban mining because e-waste contain valuable matters such as gold, silver, cooper, aluminium and critical minerals.

Globally 62 millions tons of e-waste was generated in 2022 while only 22.3% was formally documented as collected and recycled.

Major Sources

• IT and Telecom
  • Mobile, computer, printer
• Consumer electronics
  • TV, camera, audio equipment's.
• Large appliances
  • Refrigerator, washing machine, ACs
• Small appliances
  • Toys, microwave
• Lighting equipment
  • Fluorescent/mercury containing lamps.
• Emerging sources are
  • Solar PV modules,
  • EVs,
  • IoT device

Why e-waste is so hazardous?

It carries lead, mercury, cadmium, bromine, brominated flame retardants and other hazardous chemicals.

Impact

• Environmental impact
  • Soil and ground water contamination
  • Toxic emission from open burning.
  • Heavy metal accumulation in food chains.
  • Air pollution from informal processing.
  • Improper disposal of refrigerants can affect ozone layer.
• Health impact
  • Neurological and developmental damage due to lead and mercury exposure.
  • Respiratory problems from toxic fumes.
  • Occupational risk for informal sector workers.

E-waste Management Rules, 2022

E-waste Management rules become effective on 1^st April 2023. It replaces 2016 rules. The key features are

• It covers 106 categories EEE under 7 categories.
• EPR
  • Responsibility for end of life management lies with producer.
  • Producer must meet recycling obligations through registered recyclers.
  • Online EPR portal for registration and compliance.
  • Producer fulfil obligations by purchasing EPR certificate from registered recycler.
  • Environmental compensation can be imposed for violation.
  • Solar PV modules/ panels are covered with provisions for storage and future recycling obligations.
  • EPR approach includes producer design and collection responsibility, authorized recycling, resources recovery in brief.
• It includes 3R's and circular economy i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle.

Biomedical Waste

Biomedical waste is the waste generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings and animals or related research and production of biologicals. Sources include hospitals, clinics, laboratories, blood bank, veterinary facilities, vaccination centres and research institutions.

Major types are

• Infectious waste like contaminated dressings, cotton
• Sharps like needles, syringes, scalpels, blade, etc.
• Pharmaceutical waste like expired medicines
• Contaminated plastics like IV tubes, gloves, blood bags
• Radioactive waste

Impact

• Spread of infectious diseases from pathogens.
• Needle stick injuries to healthcare and sanitation workers.
• Soil and groundwater contamination.
• Air pollution and toxic emission from uncontrolled burning.

Biomedical waste Management Rules, 2016

The biomedical waste Management rules, 2016 notified under Environment protection Act, 1986 replaced 1998 rules. The key principles are

• Segregation at source
  • Biomedical waste must be segregated at the point of generation preventing mixing with general municipal waste.
  • Four colour classification
    • Yellow Colour
      • It covers anatomical waste, expired medicines, etc.
      • It needs to be given deep burial.
    • Red Colour
      • It is contaminated recyclable plastics such as gloves, IV sets, etc.
      • It needs to be recycle.
    • White Colour
      • Sharp needles, blades, scalpels, disinfections/shredding/encapsulation.
    • Blue Colours
      • Glassware, metallic implants
      • Recycling.

Solid Waste Management/ Urban Waste Management

It includes biodegradables, recyclable domestic hazardous e-waste, plastic waste, biomedical waste.

Major problems are

• Poor segregation
• Collection and transportation.
• Excessive use of landfills. Due to this
  • Land requirement
  • Soil and water contamination
  • Methane generation
  • Odour
  • Vectors.
• Long term land degradation.

Regulatory framework is Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016.