Indigenous Dynasties
The Sungas
The Sunga Empire was founded by Pushyamitra Sunga after the decline of the Maurya Empire. The capital remained at Pataliputra. The Sungas ruled from 185 to 75 BCE.
The Ayodhya inscription provides information about Pushyamitra Sunga, who performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices. The Sunga Empire witnessed significant developments in language and literature. Patanjali, the author of the Mahabhashya, lived in the 2nd century BCE. His work is one of the most well-known commentaries on Panini's Ashtadhyayi. He also wrote the Yoga Sutras, a basic text of yoga philosophy. He mentioned the word Yavana, a general term for foreigners, especially Bactrians and Greeks.
The overall development of Sanskrit language and grammar in early Indian history is associated with three great grammarians: Panini, Katyayana, and Patanjali. The three important works associated with Panini's Ashtadhyayi are the Varttika of Katyayana, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, and the Kashika Vritti of Jayaditya and Vamana.
The Sungas are generally regarded as Brahmins belonging to the Bharadvaja Gotra. Their period of rule witnessed the resurgence or revival of Brahmanism. Buddhist texts accused Pushyamitra of destroying Buddhist monuments and killing Buddhist monks. However, modern historians consider these accounts exaggerated because the Sunga period witnessed the renovation and enlargement of Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi.
Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son, Agnimitra, who is the hero of Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram. The play describes events associated with Agnimitra and refers to the Ashvamedha sacrifice performed by Pushyamitra Sunga.
Agnimitra was succeeded by a later king named Bhagabhadra, who ruled from his capital at Vidisha. His reign witnessed the arrival of Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of King Antialcidas, at his court. Heliodorus commissioned the construction of a pillar at Besnagar, known as the Heliodorus Pillar. He set up the pillar with an image of Garuda, dedicated it to Lord Vasudeva, and described himself as a Bhagavata. The inscription on the pillar is written in Prakrit using the Brahmi script. It praises Lord Vasudeva as the God of Gods. The inscription mentions three steps to immortality that lead to heaven when practised: self-restraint, generosity, and attentiveness.The pillar was identified by Alexander Cunningham in 1877. It was part of a temple that has since been destroyed.
The last ruler of the Sunga Empire was Devabhuti, who was assassinated by his minister, Vasudeva Kanva. The Sunga dynasty was subsequently replaced by the Kanva dynasty around 75 BCE.
The Kanva Dynasty
The Kanva dynasty ruled from 75 BCE to 28 BCE. Its rulers were Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana, and Susharman. Their capitals included Pataliputra and Vidisha.
The Satavahanas
The Satavahanas were among the successors of the Mauryas in southern India. They are mentioned by the terms Andhras, Andhrajatya, and Andhrabhritya in the Puranas. They are also described as descendants of the Brahmin sage Vishwamitra. They are known for their patronage of Hinduism. They established their capital at Pratishthana.
The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He ruled over much of present-day Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh. The earliest Satavahana king to receive wide recognition was Satakarni I. Due to his policy of military expansion, he is mentioned as Dakshinapatha-pati, meaning the lord of the Deccan, in the Naneghat inscription of his queen, Naganika.
One of the famous rulers of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He was the author of the Gatha Saptashati, a collection of poems based on themes of love, written in Prakrit.
The greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements are described in glorious terms in the Nasik inscription issued by his mother, Gautami Balashri. His patronage of Brahmanism is reflected in his title Eka Brahmana, which means the sole protector of Brahmins. By his time, the Satavahanas had established control over Southern Indian, as indicated by his title Trisamudratoyapitavahana or Trisamudratoyapitavahana.
The Satavahanas also fought wars against foreign invaders. The Nasik inscription of Gautami Balashri praises Gautamiputra Satakarni as the destroyer of the Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas.
The son and successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni was Vashishtiputra Pulumavi. Coins issued by Pulumavi depict ships, indicating the Satavahanas' maritime activities and control over sea routes. He is credited with shifting the Satavahana capital from Pratishthana in Maharashtra to Dhanyakataka, near modern-day Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. To safeguard the empire against continuous Saka invasions, he assumed the prestigious title of Dakshinapathapati. His reign was characterised by intense conflict with the Saka Satraps of western India. He lost Malwa, Aparanta, and northern Konkan to the Saka ruler Rudradaman I. To prevent further hostilities, he entered into a strategic matrimonial alliance with the daughter of Rudradaman I. The famous Greek-Roman geographer and writer Ptolemy mentioned the Satavahanas in his text under the Greek name Siro Polemaios.
The last important ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Yajna Sri Satakarni. He died towards the end of the 2nd century CE. The Satavahana kingdom subsequently became divided among several feudatories who had previously been patronised by the dynasty.
The Chedi/Mahameghavahana Dynasty
The Chedi kingdom is associated with Kalinga, which comprised much of present-day Odisha and the northern parts of Andhra Pradesh. It emerged in the 1st century BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela provides information about the kingdom.
Kharavela was a great ruler of Kalinga who restored its pride and glory after the devastating Kalinga War of Ashoka. He defeated neighbouring rulers and is known for irrigation and development works, public welfare, good governance, efficient administration, and the promotion of art, culture, and architecture.
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela is written in the Prakrit language using the Brahmi script. It is engraved on the wall of a cave in the Udayagiri Hills near Bhubaneswar. The inscription narrates Kharavela's military campaigns. It mentions foreigners such as the Yavanas and demonstrates the patronage extended by Kharavela to Jainism.
According to Romelia Thapar, the Hathigumpha inscription is one of the earliest available biographical inscriptions of an Indian king. The inscription also mentions the term Bharatavarsha, which is considered an early epigraphic reference to India as Bharatavarsha.
