The 18th century in India was marked by the fragmentation of central Mughal power and the subsequent emergence of regional polities. Historians categorize these regional entities into three distinct groups:
- Successor States: Provinces that asserted virtual independence from the Mughal Empire while maintaining nominal ties (e.g., Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad).
- Rebellion / Independent States: Kingdoms founded by groups in open rebellion against Mughal rule (e.g., Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats).
- Autonomous Principalities: Regions that enjoyed internal autonomy during the Mughal zenith and retained it after its decline (e.g., Rajput States and Mysore).
Among the successor states, Awadh emerged as a highly prosperous and politically stable regional power. Situated in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna plain, it controlled the rich trade routes between Bengal and Northern India. By leveraging agricultural wealth and implementing pragmatic administrative and revenue reforms, its rulers transformed Awadh into a virtual sovereign kingdom.
Saadat Khan
Saadat Ali Khan, also known as Burhan-ul-Mulk, was the founder of the independent regional state of Awadh. His career represents the classic transition of an imperial governor establishing regional autonomy.
- Appointment as Governor (1722): He was appointed as the Subadar (governor) of Awadh in 1722 by the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah (often called Rangila). At the time of his appointment, the province was in a state of chaos, dominated by defiant zamindars who refused to pay imperial taxes and maintained private armies.
- Subduing the Zamindars: Saadat Khan launched aggressive military campaigns to suppress rebellious landholders. He demolished their forts, confiscated their arms, and forced them to submit to state authority. However, his policy was pragmatic; he did not displace the defeated chieftains but reinstated them as revenue payers once they acknowledged his authority.
- Consolidation of Power: He systematically dismantled the imperial Mughal system of checks and balances by combining the administrative office of Subadari, the financial office of Diwani, and the military office of Faujdari under his personal control.
- Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739): When the Persian emperor Nadir Shah invaded India in 1739, Saadat Khan was summoned to Delhi to assist the imperial forces. He fought at the Battle of Karnal but was taken prisoner. He subsequently entered into negotiations with Nadir Shah. Hoping to secure a high imperial post, Saadat Khan suggested that Nadir Shah march on Delhi to extract a massive indemnity (â‚ą20 crores) from Muhammad Shah. Unable to fulfill the Persian invader's subsequent demands for this amount, Saadat Khan committed suicide (or was poisoned) in March 1739 to escape humiliation.