The Peasant Uprisings
The peasant uprisings during British colonial rule were the outcome of British colonial policies in India during the 18th and 19th centuries. They resulted from deep economic exploitation, social oppression and administrative injustice. The uprisings, such as the Indigo Revolt, Deccan Riots and Mappila Rebellion, reflected the growing distress of the rural population under colonial policies.
One of the most important causes was the exploitative land revenue system introduced by the British. Another major cause was the commercialisation of agriculture. Along with these, the role of moneylenders and other intermediaries further worsened the situation for the peasants. Agricultural stagnation and increasing indebtedness also contributed to peasant distress.
Peasants also suffered due to the loss of traditional rights. Earlier, village communities had some control over land and resources, but British policies weakened these systems. Forest laws restricted access to forests, affecting the livelihoods of peasants. Frequent famines and economic crises aggravated their misery. Despite food shortages, the British continued revenue collection and grain exports. This demonstrated the indifference of the colonial administration towards peasant welfare.
Social and cultural factors also played a role. In some regions, peasants revolted against foreign rule and local oppression simultaneously, combining economic grievances with resistance against British authority.
Major Peasant Movements
Indigo Revolt (1859–60)
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In Bengal, European indigo planters exploited peasants by forcing them to grow indigo instead of more profitable crops, such as rice.
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Under the Nij system, indigo was grown on land controlled by planters, while under the Ryoti system, peasants were forced to cultivate indigo under contracts.
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Planters forced peasants to take advances and enter into fraudulent contracts.
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In 1859, peasants in Nadia district, led by Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas, refused to grow indigo under duress.
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The Bengali intelligentsia supported the peasants' cause.
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The Indigo Commission investigated the issue, and in November 1860, the government issued a notification stating that ryots could not be compelled to grow indigo.
Pabna Agrarian Leagues
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During the 1870s and 1880s, large parts of eastern Bengal witnessed agrarian unrest caused by oppressive zamindari practices.
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Zamindars enhanced rents beyond legal limits and prevented tenants from acquiring occupancy rights.
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Agrarian leagues organised rent strikes, with ryots refusing to pay enhanced rents and challenging zamindars in court.
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The government promised legislation to protect tenants, and the Bengal Tenancy Act was passed in 1885.
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Young Indian intellectuals, including Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt and Surendranath Banerjee, supported the peasants' cause.
Deccan Riots (1875)
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Ryots in the Deccan region of western India suffered heavy taxation under the Ryotwari system.
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The situation worsened after the American Civil War ended in 1865, causing cotton prices to fall. The government increased land revenue by 50% in 1867, followed by successive bad harvests.
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In 1875, tensions between moneylenders and peasants resulted in social boycott movements against moneylenders.
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The government suppressed the movement, but the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act was passed in 1879.
Kisan Sabha Movement
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Cultivators faced high rents, summary evictions (bedakhali), illegal levies, renewal fees and nazrana.
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The United Provinces Kisan Sabha was established in February 1918 by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi.
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The Awadh Kisan Sabha was established in October 1920 due to differences within the nationalist movement. It demanded the abolition of bedakhali, the refusal to pay illegal levies and a boycott of oppressive landlords.
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Prominent peasant leaders included Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh and Baba Ramchandra.
Eka Movement (1921–22)
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Peasant discontent resurfaced in the northern districts of the United Provinces, including Hardoi, Bahraich and Sitapur.
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Major issues included rents exceeding recorded rates by 50%, oppression by thekadars collecting revenue and the practice of share-rents.
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Madari Pasi, along with other low-caste leaders and small zamindars, provided leadership.
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By March 1922, severe repression by the authorities brought the movement to an end.
Mappila Rebellion / Malabar Rebellion (1921)
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The Mappilas were Muslim tenants of the Malabar region, where most landlords were Hindus.
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Their grievances centred on insecure tenancy, high rents, renewal fees and other oppressive exactions.
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The movement merged with the ongoing Khilafat agitation. Leaders such as Gandhi, Shaukat Ali and Maulana Azad addressed Mappila meetings.
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Initially, the symbols of British authority, including courts, police stations and treasuries, as well as unpopular landlords, were targeted.
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The communalisation of the rebellion isolated the Mappilas from the wider Khilafat–Non-Cooperation Movement.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
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European indigo planters in Champaran, Bihar, forced peasants to cultivate indigo on 3/20th (three-twentieths) of their land under the Tinkathia system.
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Peasants were also forced to sell their produce at prices fixed by European planters.
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After German synthetic dyes replaced indigo, planters demanded high rents and illegal dues to maximise profits.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
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Peasants in Kheda district, Gujarat, faced hardship due to crop failure and a plague outbreak.
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Despite agricultural distress, the government insisted on collecting land revenue.
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Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and other leaders organised peasants to refuse revenue payment until their demands were addressed.
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The movement demonstrated the effectiveness of organised, non-violent resistance against colonial injustice.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)
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Organised by Vallabhbhai Patel in Bardoli, Gujarat, against a 30% increase in existing land revenue.
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Farmers refused to pay the enhanced revenue.
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Several elected members of the Bombay legislature and municipal bodies resigned in support of the movement.
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The agitation compelled the Bombay Government to reduce the unfair revenue increase, bringing it down to approximately 6.3%.
All India Kisan Sabha (1936)
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The All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was formed in 1936 at Lucknow and was also known as the Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha.
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Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was its president, and N.G. Ranga was its secretary.
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Its major objectives were:
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Abolition of landlordism and redistribution of land to agricultural and other rural labourers.
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Improvement in the standard of living of rural masses and the development of agriculture and industry.
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Ending the exploitation of agricultural and other rural labourers.
Outcomes
The peasant uprisings highlighted the severe economic exploitation faced by peasants under British rule. These uprisings often forced the British government to reconsider and, in some cases, reform its policies to address peasant grievances. Examples include the Bengal Tenancy Act (1885), the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act (1879) and the government's response to the Indigo Revolt.
The methods and strategies employed in these uprisings served as models for future struggles. Rent strikes, social boycotts, refusal to pay enhanced revenue and organised non-violent resistance demonstrated the power of collective action and local leadership.
These uprisings developed a sense of unity and shared identity among different regions and communities. Over time, they also contributed to the development of broader national consciousness. Movements such as Champaran, Kheda and Bardoli connected agrarian grievances with the wider national movement.
The persistent and courageous resistance of peasants against overwhelming odds established a tradition of defiance against colonial rule. The sacrifices made by peasants became powerful symbols of resistance and martyrdom, motivating others to join the struggle against colonial oppression.
The lessons learnt from peasant uprisings helped create conditions for post-independence agrarian reforms, such as the abolition of zamindari and the imposition of ceilings on landholdings, as well as the Bhoodan and Gramdan movements led by Acharya Vinoba Bhave. These initiatives aimed to reduce the power of traditional landlords and address inequalities in the agrarian structure.