Regional Wars Between East India Company and Indian States - UPSC Notes

he British during the conflicts, became increasingly dependent on British power.

4. British success in Mysore set a precedent for subsequent conquests and annexations, including those involving the Maratha Empire and other regional powers.

5. The struggles of Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan emerged as symbols of resistance against British colonial rule. Their efforts to modernise the military and resist British domination inspired future generations of Indian nationalists.

Legacy of Tipu Sultan

• The question of whether Tipu Sultan was religiously intolerant is a subject of significant historical debate. Historical accounts and records indicate that Tipu Sultan persecuted Christians and Hindus in certain parts of his kingdom. However, despite being a devout Muslim, he supported the Sufi tradition of Islam. He also supported and patronised Hindu temples, providing grants and donations to several temples, including the famous Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangapatna in Karnataka.

• Tipu Sultan's reign was also characterised by his struggle against the British, administrative reforms, and ambitious territorial aspirations. He was a ruler with progressive ideas. He became a member of the Jacobin Club and established a branch of the club in 1794. He declared himself a citizen and planted a Tree of Liberty in his capital, Seringapatam. He also sent emissaries to Arabia, Kabul, Constantinople, Versailles, and Mauritius.

• However, the limitations of Tipu Sultan's policies were evident in his ambitions, which alienated neighbouring states such as the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad. These regional powers felt threatened by his aggressive and expansionist policies. Moreover, his reliance on French support was undermined by the changing political situation in Europe during the French Revolution.

• Finally, Tipu Sultan's legacy is multifaceted, reflecting both his achievements and his failures in diplomacy.

Treaty of Subsidiary Alliance

States to Sign the Subsidiary Alliance

• Nizam of Hyderabad, 1798

• Mysore and Tanjore, 1799

• Nawab of Awadh, 1801

• Maratha Peshwa, 1802

• Bhonsle, 1803

• Scindia of Gwalior, 1804

Main Principles of the Subsidiary Alliance

1. An Indian ruler entering into a Subsidiary Alliance with the British had to accept British forces within his territory and agree to pay their expenses, either in money or by ceding territory to the Company for the maintenance of the troops.

2. The ruler had to accept the appointment of a British representative, called a Resident, at the capital of his state. The Resident would oversee negotiations and communications with other states, meaning that the ruler could not negotiate or establish relations with other states without the Resident's approval.

3. The Indian ruler who had entered into the alliance could not enter into any other alliance with another power or declare war against any power without British permission.

4. The ruler could not employ any European other than the British. If he had already employed other Europeans, he had to dismiss them.

5. In the event of a conflict with another state, the ruler had to accept the resolution decided upon by the British.

6. The ruler had to acknowledge British supremacy in India.

7. In return for accepting these conditions, the Company promised to protect the ruler against external threats and internal disorder.

Anglo-Maratha Wars

The Anglo-Maratha Wars, fought between the British East India Company (EIC) and the Marathas from 1775 to 1818, were significant conflicts that shaped the course of Indian history.

These wars resulted in the eventual end of Maratha power and the establishment of British supremacy in the Deccan region of India.

Causes

1. The EIC aimed to expand its territory and influence in India. The Maratha Empire, being a significant power in western and central India, posed a challenge to British expansionist ambitions.

2. The British wanted to establish control over major trade routes and ports, particularly in the western coastal region of India, which was under Maratha influence.

3. The death of Maratha Peshwa Madhav Rao I in 1772 led to a succession dispute among the Maratha chiefs, providing an opportunity for the British to interfere.

4. Conflicts within the Maratha Confederacy made it vulnerable to external intervention.

Wars Fought Between the British and the Marathas

1. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)

British support for Raghunath Rao as Peshwa and internal conflicts within the Maratha Empire led to the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War. In the initial phase of the war, the Marathas achieved a significant victory, forcing the British to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon (1779). The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782). The British agreed to withdraw their support for Raghunath Rao and recognise Madhav Rao II as the legitimate Peshwa. The British retained Salsette but returned most of the other captured Maratha territories, including Bharuch, except for certain territories retained under the treaty's terms.

Both sides agreed not to interfere in each other's affairs and to maintain peace.

2. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805)

The Treaty of Bassein, signed in 1802, became an immediate cause of this war. It was signed between the British and Peshwa Baji Rao II. The treaty made the Peshwa dependent on the British, which was opposed by other Maratha chiefs and led to conflict. The British forces, under the command of Arthur Wellesley, achieved a decisive victory over the Maratha forces in the Battles of Assaye and Argaon (1803).

After their defeat, the Maratha chiefs were forced to surrender territory to the British, weakening their power and influence. Maratha chiefs such as Bhonsle signed the Treaty of Deogaon in 1803, while Scindia signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon in 1803. Holkar signed the Treaty of Rajpurghat in 1805.

3. Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818)

The Marathas attempted to regain their lost territory and power, leading to the outbreak of the war.

The British wanted to eliminate the Maratha threat once and for all and establish their dominance over the southern part of the Indian subcontinent.

The British launched a series of military campaigns, decisively defeating the Marathas. Their defeat led to the annexation of the Peshwa's territories and the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy. Peshwa Baji Rao II was dethroned and pensioned off to Bithur, near Kanpur, where he died in 1851.

Consequences of the Anglo-Maratha Wars

1. The Maratha Empire, which was once a dominant power in India, was reduced to a collection of princely states under British paramountcy. The Peshwa was deposed, and the Maratha chiefs lost their political autonomy. A significant part of the territory was annexed by the British, weakening the Marathas' power base.

2. The EIC expanded its control over large parts of India, including Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. This territorial expansion solidified British dominance in the Indian subcontinent. The British established a new administrative structure to govern the annexed territories, integrating them into the British colonial framework.

3. The British implemented new revenue policies to extract resources from the annexed territories. The traditional agrarian economy was disrupted, leading to economic hardship for the local population.

4. The resistance of the Marathas against British colonialism inspired future generations of Indian nationalists. Leaders such as Tilak and revolutionaries such as the Chapekar brothers drew inspiration from Maratha struggles.

5. Maratha warriors and rulers, including the Peshwas and Chhatrapatis, became symbols of national pride and resistance against foreign rule. Their legacy continues to inspire contemporary movements for social and political justice.

Treaties and Battles of the Anglo-Maratha Wars

Battle of Wadgaon (1779)

As part of the First Anglo-Maratha War, Maratha forces led by Mahadji Scindia and Tukoji Rao Holkar defeated the British forces. The British were compelled to sign the Convention of Wadgaon in 1779.

Battle of Assaye (1803)

It was part of the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in which the British forces, led by Arthur Wellesley, defeated the Maratha forces led by Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghuji Bhonsle.

Battle of Koregaon (1818)

A major battle fought during the Third Anglo-Maratha War, in which British forces led by Captain Francis Staunton fought against a much larger Maratha army associated with Peshwa Baji Rao II. This battle is remembered by some as a symbol of Dalit resistance and pride. To commemorate the battle, the Company commissioned a victory obelisk at Koregaon.

Treaty of Surat (1775)

It was an agreement between the British East India Company and Raghunath Rao, under which he agreed to surrender Salsette and Bassein to the British in exchange for 2,500 British soldiers to help him regain power, leading to the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War. However, the Calcutta Council subsequently annulled the agreement, leading to the Treaty of Purandar in 1776.

Treaty of Salbai (17 May 1782)

It was signed between the Marathas and the Company. It ended the First Anglo-Maratha War and established peace between the two parties, which lasted for approximately 20 years, until the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

Treaty of Bassein (31 December 1802)

It was signed between the Company and Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II. It was a Subsidiary Alliance treaty that became the immediate cause of the Second Anglo-Maratha War.

Treaty of Deogaon (17 December 1803)

It was signed between the English East India Company and Raghuji Bhonsle. It forced the Bhonsle dynasty to cede territory and accept British influence, increasing its dependence on the British.

Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (30 December 1803)

It was signed between the Company and Daulat Rao Scindia, making Scindia increasingly dependent on the British and placing him under British influence.

Treaty of Rajpurghat (24 December 1805)

It was signed between the Company and Yashwant Rao Holkar. It helped bring the Second Anglo-Maratha War to an end and weakened the Maratha Confederacy.

Treaty of Poona (1817)

It was signed between the British and Peshwa Baji Rao II. It significantly reduced the power and authority of the Peshwa and contributed to the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

Treaty of Mandsaur (6 January 1818)

It was signed between Malhar Rao Holkar's administration and the Company. It marked the end of Holkar's resistance during the Third Anglo-Maratha War and strengthened British control over Indore.

Anglo-Nepal War (1814–1816)

The Anglo-Nepal War, also known as the Gorkha War, was a military conflict between the English East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal, ruled by the Gorkhas. It marked the first direct confrontation between the Company and the Kingdom of Nepal.

The background of the war lay in the expansionist policies of the Gorkhas towards the mainland of India, especially in the foothills of the Himalayas. The war ended with the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, under which Nepal ceded Kumaon, Garhwal, and territories in the Terai region to the British. Nepal also ceded Sikkimese territories. A British Resident was appointed in Kathmandu to increase British influence. Nepal agreed not to interfere in the affairs of its neighbours or engage in war with them without British approval. The British also began recruiting Gorkha soldiers into their army.

Anglo-Sindh War

The Anglo-Sindh War was a crucial conflict between the English East India Company and Sindh in 1843. The war resulted in the British annexation of Sindh and played a significant role in the expansion of British rule in India.

Causes

1. The English East India Company aimed to secure and expand its territories in India. Moreover, Sindh's strategic position, with its proximity to the Indus River and the Arabian Sea, made it a valuable asset for controlling trade routes.

2. The British also wanted to establish a foothold in Sindh to secure the north-western frontier and counter the potential threat of a Russian invasion through Afghanistan.

3. Another reason for the annexation was the British defeat in the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842). This defeat created a need for conquest to compensate for the loss of prestige following the humiliation suffered in the war.

Major Events in the Anglo-Sindh Conflict

1. The first move towards establishing diplomatic relations with Sindh was made by Lord Minto I, who signed a treaty with the Amirs of Sindh in 1809.

2. The second move was made in 1832, when Lord William Bentinck and the Amirs of Sindh signed a treaty that was commercially advantageous to the British, as it allowed the Company to use the roads and rivers passing through Sindh.

3. The third important move was made by Lord Auckland, whose Sindh policy contained an element of aggressiveness. He viewed Sindh as a strategically located territory whose control was necessary to strengthen British defences in India. In 1838, he signed a Tripartite Treaty with Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja. The treaty reduced the influence of two major powers over Sindh: Punjab and Afghanistan. Through the treaty, Shah Shuja's nominal claim of sovereignty over the Amirs of Sindh was asserted, and the British emerged as mediators in disputes between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Amirs of Sindh.

Finally, in 1839, the Amirs of Sindh signed a Subsidiary Alliance with the British.

4. The final move was taken by Lord Ellenborough. He appointed Charles Napier as the commander of British forces in Sindh in 1842, and Napier played an instrumental role in the annexation of Sindh. He initiated a policy of blaming the Amirs of Sindh on the grounds that they had hostile intentions towards the Company. Finally, on the basis of allegedly hostile letters attributed to the Amirs, he created the immediate pretext for the annexation of Sindh in 1843.

Sindh was finally annexed after the defeat of the Amirs in the Battle of Miani in February 1843 and the Battle of Dubbo, also known as the Battle of Hyderabad, in March 1843.

5. Napier informed Ellenborough of the victory over Sindh with the short message Peccavi, the Latin word meaning "I have sinned." This was a famous pun on the words "I have Sindh." Napier also expressed his views on the annexation in his writings.

Anglo-Sikh Wars

The Anglo-Sikh Wars were a series of conflicts between the English East India Company and the Sikh Empire, which ultimately led to the annexation of Punjab into British India.

Causes of the Anglo-Sikh Wars

1. The British East India Company was keen to expand its territory in India. Punjab, with its fertile land and strategic location, was important to British interests. Lord Dalhousie, considered a great imperialist during the reign of Queen Victoria (1819–1901), pursued opportunities to annex Indian states whenever possible.

2. The conquest of Punjab was also influenced by the growing Anglo-Russian rivalry and the consequent British fear that Russia might attack India through the north-western frontier region.

3. The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 created a power vacuum in Punjab. His strong leadership had maintained stability, but his death led to a succession of weak rulers. During this period, the Sikh court at Lahore became a battleground for different factions fighting for power, creating an atmosphere of instability and chaos.

4. Despite the internal instability, the Sikh army, known as the Khalsa, remained a formidable force. The British considered it a potential threat. Frequent border conflicts between Sikh and Company forces escalated tensions, making a conflict increasingly likely.

5. The Treaty of Amritsar of 1809, also known as the Minto-Metcalfe Treaty, was concluded between Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Charles Metcalfe, representing the Company. It established boundaries between the Sikh Empire and British India. However, disagreements over the interpretation and implementation of agreements contributed to disputes and rising tensions.

Wars Fought Between the British and the Sikhs

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846)

The Battle of Mudki, fought in December 1845, was one of the first major engagements of the war. It resulted in a British victory, but both sides suffered heavy casualties.

The Battle of Sobraon, fought in February 1846, was the final major battle of the war. It resulted in a British victory and the collapse of Sikh resistance. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Lahore in 1846, which imposed severe terms on the Sikh Empire. The treaty required the Sikhs to surrender territory, reduce the size of their army, and pay a large indemnity to the British. It also provided for the appointment of a British Resident in Lahore, effectively placing Punjab under British influence.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849)

The harsh terms of the Treaty of Lahore and the presence of British officials in Punjab caused widespread resentment among the Sikhs. Various Sikh leaders and military factions dissatisfied with British interference rose in rebellion. The revolt of the Sikh governor of Multan in 1848 marked the beginning of the Second Anglo-Sikh War.

The Battle of Chillianwala (January 1849)

It was one of the toughest battles fought by the Company. The British suffered heavy casualties in the battle.

The Battle of Gujrat (February 1849)

It was a decisive battle of the war, resulting in the final defeat of the Sikh forces. It is also known as the Battle of Guns because of the extensive and decisive use of British artillery, which broke the Sikh army's defences.

Following the annexation of Punjab in 1849, Maharaja Duleep Singh was deposed, and he and his mother, Rani Jindan, were eventually sent to England. Duleep Singh was granted an annual pension. The famous Kohinoor diamond also passed into British possession.