Rise of the Maratha Confederacy in the 18th Century

The 18th century witnessed a remarkable transition in the Indian subcontinent. As the once-mighty Mughal Empire collapsed under the weight of internal factionalism, agrarian crises, and weak successors after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a powerful indigenous force rose to fill the political vacuum: the Marathas. Under the dynamic leadership of the Peshwas (Prime Ministers), the Marathas transformed from a regional kingdom into a vast, decentralized Maratha Confederacy that dominated the political landscape of India.

For UPSC CSE aspirants (GS Paper I - History, and History Optional), the study of the Maratha Confederacy is crucial to understanding the transition from medieval fragmentation to British colonial hegemony.

From Shivaji to Peshwas

The administrative and political structure of the Marathas underwent a fundamental shift during the 18th century—transitioning from a centralized monarchy under Chhatrapati Shivaji to a Peshwa-centric administration, and eventually to a decentralized confederacy of military chiefs.

       [Chhatrapati (Satara)]
                 │
                 ▼  (Treaty of Sangola, 1750)
        [Peshwa (Pune)]
                 │
    ┌────────────┼────────────┬────────────┐
    ▼            ▼            ▼            ▼
[Scindia]     [Holkar]    [Gaekwad]    [Bhonsle]
(Gwalior)     (Indore)     (Baroda)     (Nagpur)

1. The Legacy of Chhatrapati Shivaji

Under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (who crowned himself in 1674), the Maratha state was a highly centralized monarchy. Shivaji established the Ashtapradhan (a council of eight ministers) to assist him in administration, with the Peshwa serving as the Prime Minister. During this era, all administrative, military, and judicial authority was concentrated in the person of the Chhatrapati.

2. Post-Shivaji Crisis and the Civil War (1680–1707)

Following Shivaji's death in 1680 and the brutal execution of his son Sambhaji by Emperor Aurangzeb in 1689, the Maratha state faced an existential crisis. The Maratha commanders launched a protracted guerrilla war of independence against the Mughals.

In 1707, following Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal prince Azam Shah released Sambhaji's son, Shahu, hoping to trigger a civil war among the Marathas. This strategy succeeded. A conflict broke out between:

Chhatrapati Shahu (backed by the Chitpavan Brahmin diplomat Balaji Vishwanath) with his capital at Satara.
Tarabai (widow of Rajaram, ruling on behalf of her son Shivaji II) with his capital at Kolhapur.

3. The Rise of the Peshwas

The civil war resulted in the triumph of Shahu, largely due to the administrative and diplomatic genius of Balaji Vishwanath, who was appointed the Peshwa in 1713.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720): He laid the foundation of Peshwa supremacy. In 1719, he negotiated a historic treaty with the Sayyid Brothers (the "kingmakers" of the Mughal court). The treaty granted Shahu the rights of Swarajya (sovereignty over Shivaji's original territories) and, crucially, the rights to collect Chauth (one-fourth revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% levy) from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.
Baji Rao I (1720–1740): Succeeded his father at the young age of twenty. A military genius, Baji Rao I propagated the "Forward Policy" of expansion into Northern India. He famously declared: "Let us strike at the trunk of the decaying tree, and the branches will fall of themselves." Under his tenure, the political capital of the Marathas shifted from Satara (the seat of the Chhatrapati) to Pune, where he built the Shaniwar Wada.
Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (1740–1761): Under him, the transition of power was institutionalized. Through the Treaty of Sangola (1750), Chhatrapati Raja Ram II surrendered all administrative and executive authority to the Peshwa. Pune became the undisputed capital of the Maratha Empire, and the Chhatrapati was reduced to a nominal sovereign confined to Satara.

Rise of the Maratha Confederacy in the 18th Century

From Shivaji to Peshwas

[Chhatrapati (Satara)] │ ▼ (Treaty of Sangola, 1750) [Peshwa (Pune)] │ ┌────────────┼────────────┬────────────┐ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ [Scindia] [Holkar] [Gaekwad] [Bhonsle] (Gwalior) (Indore) (Baroda) (Nagpur)

1. The Legacy of Chhatrapati Shivaji

2. Post-Shivaji Crisis and the Civil War (1680–1707)

Chhatrapati Shahu (backed by the Chitpavan Brahmin diplomat Balaji Vishwanath) with his capital at Satara.

Tarabai (widow of Rajaram, ruling on behalf of her son Shivaji II) with his capital at Kolhapur.

3. The Rise of the Peshwas

The civil war resulted in the triumph of Shahu, largely due to the administrative and diplomatic genius of Balaji Vishwanath, who was appointed the Peshwa in 1713.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720): He laid the foundation of Peshwa supremacy. In 1719, he negotiated a historic treaty with the Sayyid Brothers (the "kingmakers" of the Mughal court). The treaty granted Shahu the rights of Swarajya (sovereignty over Shivaji's original territories) and, crucially, the rights to collect Chauth (one-fourth revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% levy) from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (1720–1740): Succeeded his father at the young age of twenty. A military genius, Baji Rao I propagated the "Forward Policy" of expansion into Northern India. He famously declared: "Let us strike at the trunk of the decaying tree, and the branches will fall of themselves." Under his tenure, the political capital of the Marathas shifted from Satara (the seat of the Chhatrapati) to Pune, where he built the Shaniwar Wada.

Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (1740–1761): Under him, the transition of power was institutionalized. Through the Treaty of Sangola (1750), Chhatrapati Raja Ram II surrendered all administrative and executive authority to the Peshwa. Pune became the undisputed capital of the Maratha Empire, and the Chhatrapati was reduced to a nominal sovereign confined to Satara.