The 18th century in India was characterized by the fragmentation of the central Mughal authority and the subsequent emergence of various regional powers. Among these, the rise of the Rohillas and the establishment of Afghan power in North India represent a significant chapter. Situated in the fertile plains of the upper Gangetic valley, the Rohilla state of Rohilkhand and the neighboring Bangash principality of Farrukhabad emerged as formidable military and political entities. From a UPSC exam perspective, understanding their rise, political role, and final subjection to the combined forces of Awadh and the British East India Company is crucial for tracing the geopolitical shifts in 18th-century India.
Afghan settlements
The presence of Afghan settlements in North India was not a sudden 18th-century phenomenon, but the scale and political nature of these settlements changed dramatically during this period.
- Patterns of Migration:
- Geographical Origins: The migrants belonged to various Pashtun (Afghan) clans, primarily from the rugged mountain region of Roh (located in the Hindu Kush/Sulaiman ranges of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). The term Rohilla literally translates to "inhabitant of Roh."
- Push and Pull Factors: Political instability, tribal conflicts, and economic scarcity in Afghanistan acted as push factors. Concurrently, the demand for high-quality mercenary soldiers by the declining Mughal Empire and provincial governors served as a major pull factor.
- Establishment of Colonies:
- During the reigns of Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712) and Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719), large groups of Afghans were recruited into the imperial army and subsequently settled in the fertile plains of Katehar (north of the Ganges) and the Doab region.
- These settlements formed closely-knit military colonies. The Rohillas preserved their tribal democratic structures, clan loyalties, and martial traditions, which made them a highly cohesive and lethal fighting force.
- The Bangash Pathans of Farrukhabad:
- Parallel to the Rohillas, another major Afghan settlement was founded by Muhammad Khan Bangash in 1713.
- He carved out an independent territory centered around Farrukhabad in the middle Doab. The Bangash Pathans played an active role in imperial politics, frequently clashing with both the Mughals and the Nawabs of Awadh.
Rohilkhand
The regional state of Rohilkhand was established by transforming the traditional region of Katehar into an autonomous Afghan-dominated principality.
- Founding Figures:
- Dawood Khan: An Afghan adventurer and soldier of fortune who entered the service of local landlords in Katehar. He gathered a large band of Afghan followers and laid the foundation of Rohilla military power.
- Ali Muhammad Khan: The adopted son and successor of Dawood Khan. He was the real architect of the Rohilla state. Taking advantage of the central government’s paralysis during and after Nadir Shah's invasion (1739), Ali Muhammad Khan subdued local Rajput landlords and established his authority over a vast territory.
- Geographical Extent:
- Rohilkhand was bounded by the Himalayas in the north, the Ganga river in the south and west, and the kingdom of Awadh in the east.
- It comprised modern Uttar Pradesh districts such as Bareilly, Moradabad, Bijnor, Budaun, Shahjahanpur, and Rampur.
- Administrative and Economic Setup:
- Capitals: The administrative capitals shifted between Aonla (near Bareilly) and Bareilly itself.
- Agrarian Prosperity: Despite political turbulence, Rohilkhand was economically prosperous. The Rohillas encouraged agriculture, maintained low revenue rates compared to the late Mughal administration, and kept trade routes secure.
- Military Oligarchy: Unlike the centralized administration of Bengal or Hyderabad, Rohilkhand functioned as a loose confederacy of Afghan chiefs (sardars) under the nominal leadership of a chief administrator, which led to internal factionalism.
Political role
As the Mughal Empire decayed, the Rohillas emerged as key players in the struggle for supremacy in Northern India, interacting dynamically with the Mughals, Marathas, Jats, and foreign invaders.
- The Rise of Najib-ud-Daulah (Najib Khan):
- Najib-ud-Daulah emerged as the most capable and ambitious Rohilla leader in the mid-18th century. He established his personal estate (jagir) in the Saharanpur region.
- His diplomatic and military acumen propelled him to the center of imperial politics in Delhi. He allied with the Irani faction and later directly with the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali to counter the dominant Maratha influence at the Mughal court.
- The Third Battle of Panipat (1761):
- Najib-ud-Daulah played a pivotal role in organizing the coalition against the Marathas. He persuaded Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) to side with Abdali, emphasizing the shared Islamic identity against the Maratha expansion.
- During the battle on 14th January 1761, Rohilla soldiers formed a substantial portion of Abdali’s victorious army. The battle temporarily shattered Maratha power in the north and left Najib-ud-Daulah as the virtual dictator of Delhi.
- Dictatorship of Delhi (1761–1770):
- Following Abdali’s departure, Najib-ud-Daulah was appointed as the Mir Bakshi (Paymaster General/Military Head) and regent of Delhi.
- He defended the imperial capital against attacks from the Jats (defeating and killing Maharaja Suraj Mal in 1763) and the Sikhs, maintaining a fragile peace in the region until his death in 1770.
- Ghulam Qadir and the Blinding of Shah Alam II:
- Najib-ud-Daulah’s grandson, Ghulam Qadir, represented the final, violent phase of independent Rohilla political assertion.
- In 1788, Ghulam Qadir temporarily captured Delhi, deposed the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, subjected the royal family to torture, and blinded the Emperor.
- This act of brutality alienated the Rohillas from all other North Indian powers. The Maratha general Mahadji Shinde soon captured Delhi, defeated Ghulam Qadir, and executed him, restoring Shah Alam II to the throne under Maratha protection.
Relations with Awadh and British
The proximity of Rohilkhand to the expanding state of Awadh and the commercial interests of the British East India Company made it a prime target for geopolitical reorganization.
- The Maratha Threat and the Treaty of 1772:
- By the early 1770s, the Marathas had recovered from their defeat at Panipat and launched retaliatory raids into Rohilkhand.
- Unable to defend themselves individually, the Rohilla chiefs, led by Hafiz Rahmat Khan (the regent of Rohilkhand), signed a treaty with Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) in June 1772 in the presence of British commander Sir Robert Barker.
- Under this treaty, the Nawab promised to military assist the Rohillas in expelling the Marathas. In return, the Rohillas promised to pay the Nawab ₹40 lakhs.
- The Payment Dispute:
- In 1773, the Marathas withdrew from Northern India due to domestic political crises in Pune.
- Shuja-ud-Daulah demanded the promised ₹40 lakhs from the Rohillas. Hafiz Rahmat Khan defaulted, claiming that the Marathas had retreated due to their internal issues rather than Awadh’s military intervention, and that Rohilkhand's economy could not afford such a sum.
- The Treaty of Banaras (1773):
- Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah sought British intervention to punish the Rohillas and annex Rohilkhand.
- He negotiated the Treaty of Banaras (1773) with Governor-General Warren Hastings. Under this treaty, Hastings agreed to lend a brigade of British troops to Awadh for the conquest of Rohilkhand in exchange for a payment of ₹40 lakhs and the maintenance costs of the troops.
- The First Rohilla War (1774):
- In 1774, the combined forces of Awadh and the British East India Company invaded Rohilkhand.
- The decisive conflict took place at the Battle of Miranpur Katra (23rd April 1774). Despite a brave resistance, the Rohillas were defeated, and their leader, Hafiz Rahmat Khan, was killed.
- Geopolitical Outcomes:
- Rohilkhand was annexed by the Nawab of Awadh, significantly expanding Awadh's borders and creating a secure buffer state for the British against potential Maratha invasions.
- A small portion of Rohilkhand was spared: Faizullah Khan (son of Ali Muhammad Khan) was recognized as the ruler of the princely state of Rampur, under British suzerainty.
- The Historical Debate on Warren Hastings' Policy:
- Warren Hastings' decision to hire out British troops to destroy a sovereign regional state was heavily criticized in the British Parliament. It became one of the key charges during his subsequent Impeachment Trial led by Edmund Burke, who characterized the Rohilla War as an act of unprovoked, mercenary aggression.
UPSC Mains Practice Questions
- "The rise of Rohilla power in the 18th century was both a consequence of Mughal decline and a catalyst for further fragmentation in North India." Critically evaluate. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
- Discuss the political and military role of Najib-ud-Daulah in the geopolitics of North India, particularly during the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). (10 Marks, 150 Words)
- Analyze the causes, course, and geopolitical outcomes of the First Rohilla War (1774). To what extent did it reflect the changing dynamics of the British-Awadh alliance? (15 Marks, 250 Words)