War of Succession and Political Instability after Aurangzeb (1707–1761)

The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 marked the beginning of a rapid and irreversible decline of the Mughal Empire. While the empire had reached its maximum territorial extent under his reign, it was structurally fragile, exhausted by decades of continuous warfare in the Deccan, and plagued by severe administrative and financial crises. The half-century following 1707 was characterized by chronic political instability, recurring civil wars for the throne, the rapid turnover of weak rulers, and the rise of powerful court factions.

By 1761—the year of the cataclysmic Third Battle of Panipat—the central authority of the Mughal Emperor had collapsed. Once the sovereign ruler of the subcontinent, the Emperor was reduced to a political pawn, while autonomous regional kingdoms carved up the empire's territories. This period of succession wars and political decay created a power vacuum that ultimately facilitated the transition from indigenous regional rule to British colonial hegemony.

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Absence of law of succession

A fundamental structural flaw in the Mughal polity was the absence of a defined, legally binding law of succession. Unlike contemporary European monarchies that practiced primogeniture (where the eldest son automatically inherits the crown), the Mughals followed the Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, combined with the belief that the most capable prince should rule.

This absence of a clear rule of succession had profound implications for the stability of the empire:

• The Sword as the Arbiter: In the absence of a constitutional mechanism, the throne became the prize of military conflict. The Persian phrase Ya Takht, Ya Tabut (either the throne or the tomb) encapsulated the high-stakes, zero-sum nature of Mughal succession. Every transition of power necessitated a bloody civil war among the surviving princes.
• Destruction of the Nobility and Military Elite: Wars of succession forced the Mughal nobility, commanders, and veteran soldiers to divide into competing factions. The death of experienced military officers and administrative officials in these internal battles weakened the state's command structure.
• Financial Exhaustion: Contending princes drained the royal treasury to mobilize massive armies, purchase the loyalty of mercenary troops, and bribe influential nobles. This profligate spending severely worsened the empire's fiscal position.
• Administrative Paralyzation: During the transition periods, provincial administration ground to a halt. Local governors and revenue collectors took advantage of the central vacuum to withhold taxes, while banditry and agrarian unrest went unchecked.
• Loss of Imperial Sanctity: As succession wars grew increasingly frequent in the 18th century, the traditional aura of imperial legitimacy was shattered. The emperor was no longer viewed as an absolute, divinely ordained sovereign, but rather as a puppet placed on the throne by powerful kingmakers.

graph TD
    classDef emperor fill:#d4af37,stroke:#333,stroke-width:2px,color:#000;
    classDef prince fill:#eaeaea,stroke:#666,stroke-width:1px,color:#333;

    Aurangzeb[Aurangzeb<br>d. 1707]:::prince --> BahadurShahI(Bahadur Shah I<br>1707-1712):::emperor
    Aurangzeb --> KamBakhsh(Kam Bakhsh<br>d. 1709):::prince
    
    KamBakhsh --> MuhiUsSunnat(Muhi-us-Sunnat):::prince
    MuhiUsSunnat --> ShahJahanIII(Shah Jahan III<br>1759-1760):::emperor

    BahadurShahI --> JahandarShah(Jahandar Shah<br>1712-1713):::emperor
    BahadurShahI --> AzimUshShan(Azim-ush-Shan):::prince
    BahadurShahI --> JahanShah(Jahan Shah):::prince
    BahadurShahI --> RafiUshShan(Rafi-ush-Shan):::prince

    JahandarShah --> AlamgirII(Alamgir II<br>1754-1759):::emperor
    AlamgirII --> ShahAlamII(Shah Alam II<br>1760-1806):::emperor

    AzimUshShan --> Farrukhsiyar(Farrukhsiyar<br>1713-1719):::emperor

    JahanShah --> MuhammadShah(Muhammad Shah<br>1719-1748):::emperor
    MuhammadShah --> AhmadShah(Ahmad Shah Bahadur<br>1748-1754):::emperor

    RafiUshShan --> RafiUdDarjat(Rafi-ud-Darjat<br>1719):::emperor
    RafiUshShan --> RafiUdDaulah(Rafi-ud-Daulah / Shah Jahan II<br>1719):::emperor

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Bahadur Shah I

Following the death of Aurangzeb, a civil war broke out among his three sons: Prince Mu'azzam, Prince Azam Shah, and Prince Kam Bakhsh. Prince Mu'azzam emerged victorious, defeating Azam Shah at the Battle of Jajau (June 1707) and Kam Bakhsh near Hyderabad (January 1709). He ascended the throne under the title of Bahadur Shah I (also known as Shah Alam I).

• Policy of Compromise and Conciliation: At 63 years of age, Bahadur Shah I realized that the empire could not survive under Aurangzeb's rigid policies. He initiated a strategy of reconciliation to stabilize the realm:
  • Rajput Policy: Initially, he attempted to assert imperial authority over Amber and Jodhpur. However, facing a unified Rajput rebellion, he quickly reversed his policy, restoring Jodhpur to Ajit Singh and Amber to Sawai Jai Singh II.
  • Maratha Policy: In 1707, he released Chhatrapati Shahu (grandson of Shivaji) from Mughal captivity. While this was a diplomatic move to trigger a civil war between Shahu and Tarabai for Maratha leadership, Bahadur Shah I hesitated to officially grant Shahu the rights to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi in the Deccan, which kept the Marathas hostile.
  • Sikh Policy: He initially established friendly terms with the 10th Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. However, after the Guru's death, Banda Bahadur launched a massive peasant uprising in Punjab. Bahadur Shah I was forced to lead a major military campaign, capturing the Sikh stronghold of Lohgarh.
• Financial Extravagance: To win over various court factions, Bahadur Shah I granted titles, promotions, and jagirs recklessly. This earned him the title of Shah-i-Bekhabar (the Heedless King) from the contemporary historian Khafi Khan (Muntakhab-al-Lubab). His policy worsened the Jagirdari Crisis by exhausting the reserve lands (Khalisa).

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Jahandar Shah

Upon Bahadur Shah I's death in 1712, another war of succession erupted. Jahandar Shah emerged victorious by defeating his brothers with the active military and diplomatic backing of Zulfikar Khan, a powerful noble belonging to the Irani faction.

• The Rise of Puppet Royalty: Jahandar Shah was the first Mughal ruler who was entirely dependent on a noble to keep his crown, marking a shift in the balance of power from the emperor to the nobility.
• Zulfikar Khan’s Reforms: Appointed as Wazir-e-Azam (Prime Minister), Zulfikar Khan held the reins of administration and implemented several pragmatic reforms to save the crumbling empire:
  • Abolition of Jizya: The discriminatory non-Muslim poll tax, reimposed by Aurangzeb, was abolished to win Hindu support.
  • Alliance with Rajputs: Zulfikar Khan conciliated the Rajput chiefs by granting them high titles and lucrative governorships. Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was appointed governor of Malwa (with the title Mirza Raja), and Ajit Singh of Marwar was appointed governor of Gujarat (with the title Maharaja).
  • Maratha Conciliation: He granted Chhatrapati Shahu the rights of chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, provided they were collected by Mughal officers and then paid to the Marathas.
  • Promotion of Ijaradari (Revenue Farming): To address the treasury's bankruptcy, Zulfikar Khan encouraged the Ijaradari system, where land revenue collection rights were auctioned to the highest bidders. While this generated short-term cash, it destroyed peasant security, fostered agrarian oppression, and undermined the long-term agrarian economy.
• Court Decadence: Jahandar Shah's reign was short and marred by personal indulgence. The influence of his mistress, Lal Kunwar, and her family degraded the traditional decorum of the Mughal court. In 1713, he was defeated, captured, and executed by his nephew Farrukhsiyar.

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Farrukhsiyar

Farrukhsiyar ascended the throne with the assistance of the Sayyid Brothers—Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan Barha—who belonged to the Hindustani faction of the nobility. Abdullah Khan was appointed Wazir, and Husain Ali Khan became Mir Bakshi (Military Commander).

• The Golden Farman (1717): In 1717, Farrukhsiyar issued a royal farman (decree) to the British East India Company, granting them duty-free trade rights in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras in exchange for a nominal annual payment. This concession, known as the "Golden Farman," laid the economic foundation for British expansion in India.
• Suppression of Banda Bahadur: In 1716, Mughal forces captured the Sikh leader Banda Bahadur and hundreds of his followers. They were executed in Delhi, temporarily breaking the organized Sikh military resistance in Punjab.
• Conflict with the Kingmakers: Farrukhsiyar resented the overbearing dominance of the Sayyid Brothers and began plotting their overthrow. Realizing the emperor's intentions, the Sayyid Brothers signed the Treaty of Delhi (1719) with the Maratha Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath. With the help of Maratha cavalry, they marched on the Red Fort, dragged Farrukhsiyar from the throne, blinded him, and subsequently strangled him to death. This was the first time in Mughal history that an emperor was assassinated by his own nobles, dealing a fatal blow to the prestige of the crown.

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Muhammad Shah

After deposing Farrukhsiyar, the Sayyid Brothers briefly placed two young princes on the throne—Rafi-ud-Darjat and Rafi-ud-Daulah (Shah Jahan II)—both of whom died within months due to illness. Finally, they crowned the 18-year-old Roshan Akhtar as Muhammad Shah.

• Roshan Akhtar "Rangeela": Muhammad Shah was a pleasure-loving ruler who spent his time patronizing music, dance (he was a key patron of Kathak), and performing arts, earning the nickname Rangeela (the Colorful).
• Suppression of the Sayyid Brothers: Frustrated by their control, Muhammad Shah conspired with Chin Qalich Khan (Nizam-ul-Mulk) and other Turani nobles. Husain Ali Khan was assassinated in 1720, and Abdullah Khan was defeated and imprisoned in 1722, ending the reign of the Kingmakers.
• De Facto Disintegration of the Empire: During Muhammad Shah's long reign, the central government lost control of its provinces. Prominent governors realized the center's weakness and established virtually independent states:
  • Nizam-ul-Mulk left Delhi in 1724 to establish Hyderabad.
  • Murshid Quli Khan consolidated autonomous rule over Bengal.
  • Saadat Khan "Burhan-ul-Mulk" established the independent dynasty of Awadh.
• The Persian Invasion of Nadir Shah (1739):
  • Seeing the empire's internal fragmentation, the Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded India.
  • Battle of Karnal (February 1739): The outdated and divided Mughal army was swiftly routed by Nadir Shah’s modern, highly disciplined forces.
  • Plunder of Delhi: Nadir Shah entered Delhi, ordered a general massacre of its citizens, and systematically plundered the capital. He carried away the legendary Kohinoor Diamond and Shah Jahan's jeweled Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus). The invasion exposed the absolute military bankruptcy of the Mughals, devastated the treasury, and shattered the remaining political authority of the state.

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Ahmad Shah

Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son, Ahmad Shah Bahadur. He was a weak, inexperienced ruler who left the administration in the hands of others, notably the Queen Mother, Udhambai (who received the title Qibla-i-Alam), and her favorite eunuch, Javed Khan.

• Rise of the Afghan Threat: The successor to Nadir Shah in Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), launched the first of his eight invasions of India during this reign. The Mughals were forced to cede the frontier provinces of Punjab and Multan to the Afghans.
• Internal Anarchy: The court was paralyzed by bitter conflicts between the Turani and Safdarjung-led Irani factions. Eventually, the ambitious noble Imad-ul-Mulk (grandson of Nizam-ul-Mulk) seized power as Wazir. In 1754, with Maratha assistance, Imad-ul-Mulk deposed Ahmad Shah, blinded him, and threw him into prison.

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Alamgir II

Imad-ul-Mulk placed Aziz-ud-din, a son of Jahandar Shah, on the throne under the title of Alamgir II (in an attempt to emulate Aurangzeb, who was Alamgir I).

• Complete Impotence of the Crown: Alamgir II possessed no real power; he was a prisoner of his own Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk, who controlled the treasury and administration.
• Geopolitical Catastrophes:
  • In 1756–57, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi again, plundering the capital and sacking the holy cities of Mathura and Vrindavan.
  • The Battle of Plassey (1757) took place in Bengal during his reign. The British East India Company defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah, establishing de facto British political and territorial control over India's richest province.
• Assassination: In 1759, fearing that Alamgir II would align with Ahmad Shah Abdali against him, Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk lured the emperor out of the palace under the pretext of meeting a Sufi saint and had him assassinated.

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Shah Jahan III

Following the murder of Alamgir II, Imad-ul-Mulk placed Muhi-ul-Millat (a grandson of Aurangzeb's youngest son, Kam Bakhsh) on the throne as Shah Jahan III.

• A Nominal Reign: His authority was confined to the immediate vicinity of Delhi and was rejected by most nobles, including the heir apparent Prince Ali Gauhar (later Shah Alam II).
• Deposition: In 1760, Maratha forces led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau captured Delhi, deposed Shah Jahan III, and proclaimed Prince Ali Gauhar as the emperor.

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Shah Alam II

Prince Ali Gauhar ascended the throne under the title of Shah Alam II. Because of the threat of assassination by Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk, he spent the initial years of his reign wandering in Bihar, Bengal, and Awadh, unable to enter his own capital of Delhi.

• The Third Battle of Panipat (1761):
  • Fought on January 14, 1761, between the Maratha Confederacy (led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau) and the invading Afghan coalition under Ahmad Shah Abdali.
  • The Marathas were decisively defeated. Abdali’s victory shattered the Maratha ambition of replacing the Mughals as the rulers of northern India and left a profound political vacuum in the region.
• The Battle of Buxar (1764) and Treaty of Allahabad (1765):
  • In 1764, Shah Alam II joined forces with Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh) and Mir Qasim (deposed Nawab of Bengal) in a bid to expel the British from Bengal.
  • The coalition was decisively defeated by the British forces under Hector Munro at the Battle of Buxar.
  • Under the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Shah Alam II was taken under British protection and forced to grant the British East India Company the Diwani rights (the right to collect land revenue) for Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. In return, he received an annual tribute of 2.6 million rupees. The sovereign ruler of India had officially become a pensioner of a foreign trading company.
• Later Reign: In 1772, the Maratha general Mahadji Shinde escorted Shah Alam II back to Delhi, restoring him to the Red Fort. However, his power was gone. In 1788, the Rohilla chief Ghulam Qadir temporarily captured Delhi and blinded Shah Alam II. In 1803, British forces under Lord Lake captured Delhi by defeating the Marathas, officially bringing the Mughal Emperor under British vassalage.

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Rise of Kingmakers

A defining feature of the political instability of the 18th century was the rise of Kingmakers—powerful nobles who controlled the imperial succession, transforming the Mughal emperors into nominal figureheads.

This phenomenon was driven by the deep factionalism within the Mughal nobility, which was divided into three main ethnic and regional groups:

The Sayyid Brothers: Prime Example of Kingmaker Politics

The Sayyid Brothers, Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan Barha, dominated the Mughal court from 1713 to 1720. They demonstrated that real power lay with the faction that controlled the army and treasury:

• They successfully placed four emperors on the throne (Farrukhsiyar, Rafi-ud-Darjat, Rafi-ud-Daulah, and Muhammad Shah) and deposed or killed those who resisted.
• They pursued a policy of administrative pragmatism, abolishing Jizya, cultivating relations with the Rajput rulers of Marwar and Amber, and forming a military pact with the Marathas (the Treaty of Delhi, 1719) to maintain their hold on power.
• Ultimately, their dominance alienated other factions, leading to a counter-coup by the Turani faction under Nizam-ul-Mulk, which resulted in the Sayyid Brothers' downfall.

The rise of kingmakers shifted the focus of the state from administrative governance and defense to court conspiracies and survival, leaving the borders of the empire exposed to foreign invasions.

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Impact on central Authority

The continuous wars of succession and the political instability between 1707 and 1761 had a devastating impact on the administrative and structural integrity of the Mughal Empire:

1. Erosion of Imperial Legitimacy: The frequent deposition, blinding, and murder of emperors by their own nobles stripped the Mughal crown of its traditional sanctity. The emperor was no longer feared or respected; he was viewed as a political tool.
2. Fiscal and Administrative Collapse: The constant struggle for the throne paralyzed the central collection of land revenue. With the treasury empty, the state could not pay its military forces, leading to widespread indiscipline, mutinies, and command failures.
3. The Mansabdari-Jagirdari Crisis: The central state lost its ability to regulate the distribution of jagirs. Weak emperors granted mansabs and jagirs indiscriminately to secure loyalty, resulting in a severe shortage of land and the breakdown of the administrative system that linked military service with land revenue.
4. Rise of Autonomous Regional Kingdoms: Realizing that the central government could neither protect nor control them, provincial governors established autonomous states. These fell into three broad categories:
   • Successor States: Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, which maintained formal allegiance to the Mughal throne but functioned as independent states.
   • Insurgent States: The Maratha Confederacy, the Jat Kingdom of Bharatpur, and the Sikh confederacies in Punjab, which rose in direct rebellion against Mughal authority.
   • Autonomous Chieftaincies: Rajput states and southern kingdoms like Travancore, which became fully independent.
5. Vulnerability to External Invasions: The political vacuum and military weakness of the center left the northwestern frontier of India undefended. This allowed Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1748–1761) to invade, plunder, and destabilize northern India.
6. Facilitation of European Colonialism: The collapse of central Mughal authority and the subsequent defeat of the Marathas at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 created a political vacuum. The British East India Company took advantage of this fragmentation, using diplomacy, alliances, and military force to conquer India.

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Prelims & Mains UPSC takeaways

Prelims Fact-Sheet

• Battle of Jajau (1707): Battle in which Bahadur Shah I defeated his brother Azam Shah to claim the throne.
• Shah-i-Bekhabar: Title given to Bahadur Shah I by Khafi Khan in Muntakhab-al-Lubab due to his administrative negligence.
• Ijaradari: Revenue farming system promoted by Zulfikar Khan under Jahandar Shah, replacing direct state collection with revenue auctioning.
• Golden Farman (1717): Issued by Farrukhsiyar, granting duty-free trade rights to the British East India Company.
• Sayyid Brothers (Abdullah and Husain Ali Khan): Known as the "Kingmakers," they belonged to the Hindustani faction.
• Battle of Karnal (1739): Nadir Shah of Persia defeated the Mughal forces under Muhammad Shah "Rangeela," leading to the plunder of Delhi and loss of the Peacock Throne.
• Battle of Buxar (1764) & Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Decisive British victory over the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and Mir Qasim, resulting in the British acquisition of Diwani rights over Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.

Mains Answer-Writing Focus

• Question: To what extent was the absence of a defined law of succession responsible for the political instability and eventual decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century?
  • Key Arguments: Contrast the lack of primogeniture with European systems; discuss how every succession turned into a destructive civil war; explain the financial drain and the destruction of the nobility; argue that while succession wars were a major catalyst, they worked in tandem with systemic issues like the Jagirdari crisis, military stagnation, and the rise of regional consciousness.
• Question: Critically analyze the role of court factions and "kingmakers" in shifting the balance of power from the imperial throne to the nobility during the first half of the 18th century.
  • Key Arguments: Explain the ethnic division of the nobility (Turani, Irani, Hindustani); detail the actions of Zulfikar Khan and the Sayyid Brothers; discuss how factionalism paralyzed the central administration, led to the neglect of borders, and forced the rulers to focus on court survival rather than state building.