Modern History UPSC Combined Notes

Factors Responsible for Decline of Mughal Empire

Aurangzeb Responsibility

Aurangzeb was responsible for the decline of Mughal empire to a large extend. Even though by the time of his death the empire was vast, he was unable to consolidate his newly conquered territories. The Deccan Campaign Significantly Contributed towards decline of Mughal Empire. These campaigns started around 1680 and continued till his death in 1707. Aurangzeb personally led this campaign. His obsession to conquer the Deccan weakened the administration of the Mughal Empire and was disastrous for the Mughal treasury. Aurangzeb also criticized for his intolerant religious policies which marked a significant departure from the policy of tolerant like Akbar. Aurangzeb failed to realize that the stability of vast Mughal Empire depend upon the Support of the people. His religious orthodoxy and his policy towards Hindus damage the stability of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb reimposed Jizya in 1679. He destroyed temples like Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi Temple and Keshav Rai Temple (Mathura). He forced non-Muslims to convert leading to rebellion which led to execution of the 9^th Sikh Guru - Guru Tej Bahadur in 1675. He also adopted Harsh policy towards Rajput's which led to the revolt of the Rajput Kingdom of Mewar and Marwar. Aurangzeb death led to Mughal throne needed a successor who had exceptional ability to re-established the peace and order but unfortunately who sat on throne lack administrative skills and military abilities need to maintain control over a large empire.  

Later Mughal Ruler's

Later Mughal ruler's refers to a series of weak and inefficient Mughal emperor's who ruled after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 leading to gradual decline of once mighty empire. These rulers are:-

1. Md. Azam Shah:- Immediate successor of Aurangzeb who ruled form March to June 1707. He defeated and killed in the battle with his elder Brother Mirza Muhammad Mu'azzam (Bahadur Shah I).
2. Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712):- Also known as Shan Alam I, because of his policy of compromised and appeasement he has been called Shah-I-Bekhabar by Khafi Khan the author of book Muntakhab-al-Lubab.
3. Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):- He came on the throne with the support of his Nobel Zulfikar Ali Khan who was the leader of Irani party of the Mughal Nobility. Zulfikar Ali Khan was appointed as Waizr-e-Azam. The king remain a puppet of Zulfikar Ali Khan. Jahandar Shah encourage Ijaradari system and abloished Jizya. His mistress, Lal Kunwar imitated the style of Nur Jahah. He was killed by Sayyid Brothers (Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan Barha).
4. Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719):- He got the throne with the support of Sayyid Brothers who came to be acknowledge as king makers. During his rule Sayyid Brothers sign treaty with Marathas the Right's to collect chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the Mughal territories in the Deccan. He was blinded and dethroned by Sayyid Brothers who placed Rafi-ud-Darjat followed Rafi-ud-Daulah (Shah Jahan-II) and finally Md. shah.
5. Md . Shah (1719-1748):- His regime witness the rise of independent Kingdom of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh and Jats. He was a great patron of performing arts. He was fond of dancing. He practiced Kathak. He has been called Rangella by Khafi Khan. During his rule Nadir Shah also known as Napoleon of Persia invaded and defeated Mughal forces in the Battle of Karnal (Feb 1739). He looted Peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond and took them to Persia.
6. Ahmed Shah Bahadur (1748-1754):- During his regime the real control went into the hands of Javed Khan- a handsome eunuch of youthful age and robust personality. His regime witness the first invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali who invaded India 8 times during the period of 1748 to 1767. He was removed from the throne by his wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk.
7. Alamgir II (1754-1759):- His regime witness the Battle of Plassey, 1757. The actual command of the kingdom during Alamgir II rule was in the hands of Imad-ul-Mulk. Later the emperor was murdered by Imad-ul-Mulk and placed Mirza Muhi-ul-Millat on throne who took the title of Shah Jahan III and ruled from 1759 to 1760.
8. Shah Alam II (1760-1806):- His real name was Ali Gauhar. His regime witness the 3rd Battle of Panipat, 1761 and Battle of Buxar, 1764. In 1788 he was blinded by one of his nobles, Gulam Kalir  who declared Bidar Bakht Md. shah as new ruler who rule by the name of Shah Jahan IV from July 1788 to October 1788. Shah Jahan IV soon dethroned  by other nobles of court and reinstated Shah Alam II. It was under the rule of Shah Alam II that the British Forces under the command of Lord Lake captured Delhi in 1803. Shah Alam II was a great poet who wrote by the pen name Aftab.
9. Akbar II (1806-1837):- His real name was Jawan Bakht. Hewas allowed to keep the title of Badshah only as curtsey by English East India Compnay. His authority remain confined only in Red Fort of Delhi. He gave the title Raja to Ram Mohan Roy.
10. Bahadur Shah II (1837-1862):- The last Mughal Emperor. He died as British pensioner in Rangoor (Burma). Hewas declared as Shahenshah-e-Hindustan by sepoys who revolted against British company in 1857. He was a poet of great merit, who wrote poems by the pen name Zaffar.

Administrative Inefficiency

The local administration which have been effective under strong rulers became increasingly corrupt and inefficient. The revenue collection system deteriorated leading to financial instability. The Mughal Governors known as subedars became increasingly autonomous often acting in their own interest rather then interest of empire.    

Economic Crisis

The continuous war and battle since the time of Aurangzeb drain the empire treasury. The cost of maintaining large army and bureaucracy became unsustainable. Agriculture productivity decline due to neglect and over exploitation which further aggravated the crisis.

Military Reasons

The Mughal military by the time of decline Mughal army became outdated and less effective. Their traditional methods and weapons didn't match effectively with emerging powers like Marathas and Britishers. Their inability to established a strong navy allow the European power particularly British to establish their dominance over India.

Foreign Invasion

The Mughal Empire face several invasion from foreign powers. Nadir Shah's invasion of 1739 was devastating as it led to significant lose of wealth and weaken the empire. Subsequent invasion of Ahmed-Shah-Abdali continued to destabilize the Mughal Empire.

European Expansion

The European trading companies particularly the British East India Company bought a new challenge. European power use their superior military strategy and diplomatic alliances to establish control over the Indian territories.

Mansabdari and Jagirdari System

Mansabdari and Jagirdari System were the backbone of Mughal administration and played a crucial role in the rise and expansion of Empire. These System eventually became major reason for decline in 18^th century. During the regime of Aurangzeb the number of Mansabdhar increase without the adequate incre`ase in the availability of  Jagirs. After Aurangzeb the weak successors failed to control the powerful Mansabdhars

Regional Kingdoms

Regional Kingdom on Bengal

• Murshid Quli Khan
• Suja-ud-din
• Sarajraz Khan
• Alivardi Khan
• Siraj-ud-Daulah
• Mir-Jafar

Murshid Quli Khan

He is the founder of independent kingdom on Bengal. He was the first nawab of Bengal who ruled in this capacity from 1717 to 1727. He established Murshidabad as the capital of Bengal. He built Katra Masjid at Murshidabad after his death he was buried in the premise of the Katra Masjid.

Suja-ud-Din

Successor of Murshid Quli Khan as the nawab of Bengal. He ruled from 1727 to 1739. His regime witness the rise of power and influence of his noble Alivardi Khan. He died in 1739 and was succeeded by his son Sarfaraz Khan, who was defeated and killed in 1740 by Alivardi Khan at the Battle of Giria.

Alivardi Khan

He remain the nawab of the Bengal from 1740 to 1756. He is known for his victory during the Battle of Burdwan in 1747 against the Maratha during the Martha invasion of Bengal. During his regime the European traders and trading companies were welcome for trade and commerce in Bengal. His policies towards them was generous. A British scholar Richard Scrafton writes that Alivardi Khan compare the European merchants to the hive of bees of whose honey must be weed but they should not be disturb because they could stink to death.

Siraj-ud-Daulah

He prohibited European companies from building up their strength and autonomy in Bengal and misusing their privileges. This led to Battle of Plassey fought on 23^rd June 1757 between Siraj-ud-Daulah and English East India Company. In this battle he was defeated due to the betrayal of his commander Mir Jafar. he was the last independent nawab of Bengal.

The Regional Kingdom of Awadh

The Kingdom of Awadh was founded by Saadat Ali Khan "Burhan-ul-Mulk". He was appointed as governor of Awadh by Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah during the time of invasion of Nadir Shah. He entered into a secret alliance with Nadir Shah and insisted to Nadir Shah to march towards Delhi in order to extract a much larger indemnity from Md. Shah. He was followed by his son-in-law the Safdar Jung who became a very powerful figure of the Mughal court during the declining year of the Mughal empire. His Mausoleum in Delhi known as Safdar Jung Tomg one of the finest specimen of the Indo-Islamic architecture in Delhi. He was followed by his son Shuja-ud-Daulah, who signed the Treaty of Allahabad with British East India Company in 1765. Later he also signed the Treaty of Banaras in 1763 with British East India Company. He was followed by his son Asaf-ud-Daulah, who shifted the capital of Awadh from Faizabad to Lucknow and he considered as the Architect General of Lucknow. With the ambition to outshine the glory of Mughal architecture he built a number of monuments and developed the city of Lucknow into architectural marvel. He patronized the construction of Rumi Darwaza also known as Turkish Gateway and Bara Imambara. Unlike the Mughal monuments which are known for the use of red sandstone and white marble, the monuments of Lucknow under nawab were built of brick coated with lime. The Nawab of Awadh Saadat-Ali-Khan Signed the Treaty of Subsidiary alliance with the British in 1801. The last nawab of Awadh was Wajid-Ali-Shah. Due to his passion for music and dance he significantly contributed toward the development of performing arts in Awadh. He composed many Thumri and was instrumental in the evolution of Lucknow gharana of Kathak.

The Regional Kingdom of Hyderabad

Mir Shahbuddin Khan Mir Qamaruddin Khan Mir Nizam Ali Khan Mir Akbar Ali Khan Mir Farkhona Ali Khan Mir Tahniath Ali Khan Mir Mahbood Ali Khan Mir Osam Ali Khan It was founded by Mir Qamaruddin Khan also known as Nizam-ul-Mulk and chin Qalich Khan. He eatablished the Asaf Jhai dynasty that ruled over the kingdom of Hyderabad for the next 7 generations. The Battle of Shakar Kheda fought on 11^th October 1724 between the Mughal forces Md. Shah and the forces of Nizam was important conflict that led to establishment of the authority of nizam over Hyderabad. When Nadir Shah invaded in 1729, it was Nizam-ul-Mulk who convinced him to end the violence by his army in the city of Hyderabad. He was followed by series of nizam who acknowledge the subsidiary alliance of British. Nizam Ali Khan sign this alliance in 1789 making Hyderabad the first Indian State to enter into the British system of alliance. The last nizam of Hyderabad was Osman Ali Khan who surrender his kingdom on 13th sept 1948 after the defeat in Operation Polo conducted by Indian forces for the merger of Hyderabad into the Union of India.

The Regional Kingdom of Punjab

The foundation of independent Punjab kingdom was Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who was the leader of Sukerchakia Misl. He said to be the leader with the modern vision who made Lahore his capital in 1779. He established European style army. Signed the Treaty of Amritsar in 1809. He took Khonir Diamond from Shah Shya the grandson of Ahmed Shah Abdali. He also singed Tripartite Treaty between Shah Shuja and English East India Company. He renovated the Sikh tribe with marble and gold. His death in 1839 was followed by weak successor i.e. Kharak Singh, Naw Nihial Singh, Sher Singh and Dalip Singh. During the time of these rulers the Sikh Kingdom decline and finally British annexed Punjab by defeating the Sikh army in First Anglo-Sikh War, 1845-46 and Second Anglo-Sikh War, 1848-49.

The Regional Kingdom of Jats

In 1669 the Jats launched their I^st significant revolt against the Mughals in the region of Mathura. Gokla was the leader of revolt. Following a series of conflict between Jats and Mughals Churaman and Badam Singh were successful in establishing on independent Jat Kingdom of Bharatpur in 18^th century. Under the regime of Maharaja Surajmal (1755 to 1763) the Jat power reach to climax of glory and braveness. He not only establish effective administration but also significantly expanded the states area. His kingdom consisted of Agra, Mathura, Merrut and Aligarh. He built the Lohagarh fort which became one of most powerful fort in India. The British army attempted to conquer the fort 13 times but they could not enter the fort even once. Maharaja Surajmal is known as Plato of Jat tribe and Jat odysseus due to his political vision and intellacult. The Jat ruler has addicts, after pragmatic relationship with the British which move around the period of resistance and period of alliances. Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Bharatpur provided great Support for the British during the revolt of 1857. In Augh 1947 the state of Bharatpur merge. The last ruler was Maharaja Vajendra Singh.

The Rajput Kingdom of 18^th Century

The Rajput State maintain high degree of autonomy during Mughal rule in India. These States were known for their martial tradition patronage of art and tradition. Initially the English East India Company was reluctant to intervein in the affairs of the Rajput Kingdom. It was only after the collapse of Martha power that the British interfere and establish subsidiary alliance with the Rajput Kingdom. Later to coordinate and supervise the relationship between the British govt and these states, Rajputana Agency was established in 1832. It was headed by a British political agent. The first person to be appointed to this post was Abhram Locket. The office of agency was initially established at Ajmer but later transfer to Mount Abu in 1845 because of the administrative convince, climate and strategic consideration. However Ajmer remain a chief commissioner province of British Empire in India. The most outstanding ruler of the 18^th century among the several Rajput state was Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amer. He performed vedic sacrifices to assert his sovereignty. He built the city of Jaipur which was designed by Vidhya Dhar Bhattacharyya. He has great interest in Mathematics and Astronomy. He establish 5 observatories (Jantar Mantar in Delhi, Jaipur, Uijan, Varashi, and Mathura ). He took steps to abolish sathi and made efforts to encourage the remarriage of widows. He also worked to cure the excessive and wasteful expenditure incurred during the Rajput weeding. He translated Euclid's text on Geometry into Sanskrit.

Independent Kingdom of Mysore

The rise of Mysore as a powerful regional kingdom in south India in 18^th century under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan in one of the most important development of history in peninsular India. Around 1761 Haider Ali become the de facto ruler of Mysore by establishing his influence upon the Wodeyar dynasty. He reorganized the army by producing European style discipline artillery and modern weapons with the help of French experts. In 1765 he establish a modern armory in Dindigul (Tamil Nadu) to produce the modern weapons. After his death in 1788 his son Tipu Sultan introduced several administrative reforms and economic policies so as to make Mysore as one of the most powerful kingdom of it's time. Tipu Sultan and Haider Ali fought 4 major wars against the English East India Company. These wars resulted in the final defeat of Mysore. A large part of the Mysorian territory was annexed by Britishers. Over smaller part of Mysore they placed a ruled of Wodeyar dynasty and Signed a treaty of Subsidiary Alliance with Britishers.

Carnatic Kingdom

During the Mughal period the Carnatic Subha covers the parts of present day Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Sanaullah Khan was the last Mughal governor of Carnatic. He also regarded as the first independent nawab of Carnatic. The Carnatic become region of conflict between English East India Company which led to 3 Carnatic wars fought in the 18^th century. These wars resulted in victory of English East India company. Finally the nawab of Carnatic Azim-ud-Daulah sign a treaty of subsidiary alliance with the British. The last nawab of Carnatic is Md. Ghose Khan, who died in 1855 without any biological heir Lord Dalhousie annexed Carnatic on the grounds of Doctrine of Lapse.

Travancore Kingdom

The Kingdom of Travancore existed from 1729 until 1947. It cover the part of modern day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The founder of the kingdom is Marthanda Varma who fought against the Dutch in the Battle of Colachel, 1741 in which the Dutch forces under the command of De Lennoy was defeated. He donated the wealth of his kingdom to Sree Padmanabha and since his time the ruler's of the Travancore Kingdom are known as Padmanabhadas. The British didn't directly annexed but brought it under indirect control because it signed subsidiary alliance with British East India Company and it maintain perpetual friendship. This system of alliance allows Britishers to treat the kingdom as while while controlling his military and foreign affairs through a British resident. Sree Chithira Balarama Varma were the last ruled king of the princely state of Travancore. He was a progressive ruler who implemented major social reforms most notably the temple entry proclamation which allows all Hindus to enter temple. He also established university of Travancore in 1937, modernize the industrial sector of kingdom and expanded public transport. He signed the Instrument of Assertion to join Indian Union ending his ruling power in 1949.

The rise of Maratha in 18^th Century

The 18^th century witness the remarkable rise of Marathas as most powerful indigenous force in Indian polity specially under the leadership of Peshwas. The period witness the rise of the power and prestige of the Peshwa during rime of Martha Chhatrapati Shahu, who impressed by the ability of Balaji Vishwanath appointed him as a Peshwa in 1730. Balaji Negotiated with the Sayeed Brothers and gain the rights to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Mughal provinces of Deccan. This led the foundation of Peshwa supremacy. By the middle of 18^th century, the Marathas under the Peshwas become very powerful. However, their defeat in the 3^rd Battle of Panipat led to their decline.

Third Battle of Panipat

The Battle was fought on 14^th Jan 1761 between the Maratha forces and the invading army of the Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali was supported by the Indian allies i.e. Najib-ud-Daulah, the leader of Rohillas and Shuja-ud-Daulah the nawab of Awadh. During the war Maratha Chhatrapati was Raja Ram II who was adopted son of Saho. The actual command of Maratha forces in battle was Sadashiv Rao Bhau (Nephew of the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao). The nominal command was given to Vishwas Rao (the son of Balaji Baji Rao). Ahmed Shah Abdali win the battle which led to end of the Maratha power in Northern Indian. According to one estimate about 50K Maratha soldiers died in the battle field along with Maratha commanders Vishwas Rao and Sadha shiv Rao. The peshwa himself did not survive after hearing the tragic news of defeat. One of the most important long term of consequences of the battle was the creation of power vacuum in the Northern India which greatly benefited the British East Indian Company. Over the next few decades the British gradually filled this vacuum and emerged as the dominant power of India.

Expeditions of Europeans

Establishment of Portuguese

The first Portuguese sailor who visited India through new sea route was Vasco Da Gama on 21^st May 1498. He landed at Calicut which is considered as one of the major landmarks in the history of India's trade with Europe. After his the second Portuguese sailor who came to India is Alvarez Cabral in 1500. He established a factory at Calicut which become the first European factory in India. Later the 1^st Portuguese fort was built at Kochi in Kerala in 1503. It was name fort Emmanuel. The Portuguese first their headquarters in Kochi on the Malabar coast. Later they shifted it to Goa, in 1530. In 1505, the Portuguese king established Estado Da India which is the earliest and longest to last European colonial enterprise in Asia. The objective of establishing a Portuguese empire in India was trade of species and textiles and spreading Christianity. Later the Portuguese brought the entire Indian ocean region under through the system of Cartazes i.e. the navigation permits which ships had to obtain from Portuguese authorities to sail in the Indian ocean region. The affairs of Estado Da India is managed by Portuguese governor appointed by Portuguese crown. These governors had extensive powers to manage military, administrative and commercial affairs of the Portuguese in Indian ocean region. Below the Governors, the captains and other officials responsible for administration of different territories implementing and managing crown policies.

The Portuguese also aims to spread Christianity, Christian missionary were active in converting Indians and establishing Christs and educational institutions. The Portuguese established a separate tribunal called "The Goa Inquisition" in 1560 which continued until 1812. The inquisition primarily focused upon enforcing Christianity upon Indians by torture, imprisonments, death penalties and intimidating the people.

Portuguese Governor in India

In 1505 Francisco De Almeida was appointed as 1^st Portuguese viceroy in India. He remains viceroy from 1505 to 1509. He focused the Blue Water policy which aims to strengthen the Portuguese navel supremacy and control over the spice trade of India through the Indian ocean region. His vision was to turn the Indian ocean into a Portuguese sea. The systematic control of the Portuguese over the trade between India and Europe brought them in conflict with the Egyptians, Arabs, Turks and several Indian kingdom. This led to a series of battle, some important being:-

• The Battle of Cannanore, 1506
• The Battle of Chaul, 1508
• The Battle of Diu, 1509 The Battle of Diu was most decisive battle fought between the Portuguese empire and joint fleet of the sultan of Gujrat, the saltant of Egypt and the La Zemori of Calicut. The Portuguese emerged victorious and the grand Islamic alliance was defeated. This victory established the Portuguese naval supremacy over the Indian ocean region and it marked the beginning of European colonialisms in Asia. The Second Portuguese governor is Alfouso De Albuquerque. He remain the Portuguese viceroy from 1509 to 1550. He is considered as the real founder of Portuguese power in India. In 1510 he captured Goa from the Bijapur Saltant. He built a Portuguese part at Bhatkal in Karnataka with the permission of Vijayanagar ruler ruler Krishna deva Rai. He abolished the practice of Sati system in Goa. He died in 1550 in Goa and was buried there. Another popular Portuguese governor in India is Nano Da Cunha. He held the position from 1529 to 1538. He signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1534 with the sultan Badhur shah of Gujrat who gave him island of Bassein including surrounding area like Daman and Diu. He established Goa as a Portuguese headquarters in 1530. Martin Alfonso De Souza was the Portuguese governor from 1542 to 1545. During his tenure in India a Christian missionary St. Francis Xavier who also a cofounder of society of Jesus (Jesuits) visited India in 1542. He learned the local language and made sincere efforts in the conversion of thousands of people to Christianity. He died in 1552 on a island in China. His remains were buried in a church of Goa. He initiated the efforts for bringing the printing press to India which was brought in 1556 and was established at Saint Paul's Collage, Goa. He considered as the lord of Goa and an annual festival is celebrated for him even today by the people of Goa.

Factors Responsible for the decline of Portuguese power in India

One of the major reason for decline was inefficiency and corruption found in the Portuguese administration system in India. The officials appointed to manage the affairs were incapable and corrupt. The lack of long term vision and their policies were primarily aim at extracting wealth rather than consolidating power. The emergence of new European power become a threat to Portuguese supremacy. The Dutch, British and French arrived in India with superior military abilities and both organized commercial enterprise. The British defeated in the Battle of Swally, 1612. This battle mark the beginning of the end of Portuguese commercial monopoly over the Indian ocean region. The Dutch took over the Portuguese territories in Sri Lanka and Indonesia. Another significant factor was the religious intolerance practiced by the Portuguese which caused strong discontent amongst the local population. It led to social unrest making it challenging for the Portuguese to maintain the political stability. Unlike the British who systematically expanded their territorial control through alliances, wars and diplomacy, the Portuguese remain confined to their initial strong holds. They failed to established a vast inland empire and remain in the costal area. This limited territorial presence make them vulnerable to attacks and reduce their political influence. The Portuguese remains culturally isolated from the Indian people. The racial arrogance prevented them from integrating with the local culture which was essential for long term dominance.

The Portuguese Contributions

The Portuguese introduced several new crops and commodities in India which have a lasting impact on Indian culture and cuisine, notably among them were red chilies, cashew nuts, tabacoo, pineapple, papaya, guava. The Portuguese were key players in trade of Indian textile particularly cotton fabrics which was highly valued in Europe and spread across Asia. The Portuguese played a major role in the spread of Christianity particularly Catholicism. The Christian missionaries such as St. Francis Xavier were active in converting the local population specially in Goa, Kerala and parts of Tamil Naidu. The Portuguese presence in India led to cultural synthesis in the region were we had strong presence such as Goa. The Portuguese language made a strong impact on Konkani language spoken in Goa which we find many Portuguese words. Similarly the Goa cuisine with dishes like Vindaloo, Bebinca reflect a fusion of Indian and Portuguese tradition. The Portuguese colonial architecture left a significant impact on India. The construction of church, forts and houses in the Indo-Portuguese style is a hall mark of the Portuguese. The notable examples includes Basilica on Bom Jesus, the Sea Cathedral and the church of St. Cajetan in Goa which are UNISCO recognized world heritage site. The art of printing first came to India when the Portuguese brought the printing press in the 16^th century. The 1^st book printed in Indian language was Thambiran Vanakkam published in Tamil. It was 16 page translation of a doctrine on Christianity.

Dutch

The Dutch were the people of Netherlands who came to India in the form of a company that means The Dutch East India Company established in 1602. This company is considered as the first Multi-national company and the first company to issue stocks. It was established under the leadership of the Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. It played an important role in establishing Dutch colonial rule in the parts of Asia including the present day Indonesia. Unlike the Portuguese who focused primarily on trade in species, the Dutch focus mainly on trade in textile from the Coromandel Coast region. Apart from textiles they also trade items like indigo, rice, opium, saltpeter. The first Dutch settlement in India was found at Masulipatnam (Andhra Pradesh) in 1605. The land for the settlement was granted by sultan of Golconda. Later they founded another settlement as Devanampattinam (Tamil Naidu) which come to be known as the Fort St. David under the British. Pulicat was another important Dutch settlement established in 1692 where they build their headquarters. Later they transfer their headquarters in Negapatam in 1687. The Dutch founded several minor settlement in western India at places such as Surat, Bharuch, Bombay and Ahmedabad. They established their factory in Patna in 1632 to trade in saltpeter which was an essential ingredient in making gun powder. Later they established a factory at Chinsurah (Fort Gustavus) at Kasim Bazar. The position of Dutch in India depended on the superiority of their naval power. They broke the Portuguese monopoly by using naval power but they failed against the British. In the Battle of Bedara, 1759 the British forces defeated the Dutch finally by the Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1824, Netherlands surrender all their possessions on the Indian subcontinent and the rights associated with them to the British. In terms of their impact upon India the Dutch are given the credit of popularizing the trade in Coromandel Chintz that means a primitive multi color fabric with glazed finished. They also contributed to the Indian architecture by constructing the Tombs at cemetery in Surat and Kasim Bazar.

Britishers

The coming of British to India Ralph Fitch an English merchant and traveler was one of the first British to visit India and other part of Asia. His visit in India took place in 1583 during the regime of the Mughal emperor Akbar. In 1600 a group of English merchant who called themselves "Merchant Adventurous" formed a company name the Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies. The company was issued a charter by the British queen Elizabeth I on 31^st Dec 1600 with the rights of exclusive trade in East Indies. The charter initially gave the company a 15 year monopoly on trade. In 1609 a new charter extended the monopoly rights of the company for a indefinite period. By the late 17^th century the company faced a rival in the form of "General Society trading to the East Indies". It was another British company formed in 1698. In 1702 the two rivals companies merged under the name "The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies". This merger was facilitated by an act of parliament. However, despite the formal change in name, the popular name "English East India Company" continued.

Major Settlement of English East India Company in India

In 1608 captain William Hawking visited India, he arrived at Surat in a ship name Hect