Revolutionary Nationalism in India - HRA, HSRA, Bhagat Singh & Ghadar for UPSC

ger strike by political prisoners demanding better treatment in jail. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were executed on 23 March 1931. Chandrashekhar Azad died on 27 February 1931 at Alfred Park, Allahabad, during an encounter with British police.

The Philosophy of the Bomb

Bhagwati Charan Vohra wrote The Philosophy of the Bomb as a rebuttal to Mahatma Gandhi's article The Cult of the Bomb, which criticized revolutionary violence. The debate reflected differences between revolutionary nationalists and supporters of non-violent resistance.

Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930)

On 18 April 1930, revolutionaries led by Surya Sen, popularly known as Masterda, carried out the Chittagong Armoury Raid in Bengal to challenge British authority through armed action. Surya Sen was arrested on 16 February 1933 and hanged along with Tarekeshwar Dastidar on 12 January 1934.

Women in Revolutionary Nationalism

Pritilata Waddedar: She joined the revolutionary group led by Surya Sen and led fifteen revolutionaries in an armed attack on the Pahartali European Club in 1932. To avoid arrest, she consumed cyanide and died.

Kalpana Datta: She participated in the revolutionary movement led by Surya Sen and was associated with the Chittagong Armoury Raid. She was also a member of the Chhatri Sangha, a women's student organization in which Bina Das and Pritilata Waddedar were active.

Suniti Choudhury and Santi Ghose: On 14 December 1931, the two teenage revolutionaries shot and killed Charles Geoffrey Buckland Stevens, the district magistrate of Comilla. They were sentenced to life imprisonment and released in 1939.

Bina Das: A member of the Chhatri Sangha, she attempted to assassinate Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson on 6 February 1932 during a convocation at the University of Calcutta. She fired five shots but failed and was sentenced to nine years of rigorous imprisonment.

Revolutionary Nationalism Outside India

Shyamji Krishna Varma and India House

Shyamji Krishna Varma established the India Home Rule Society in London in 1905. He published the monthly journal The Indian Sociologist and provided fellowships to Indian students studying in Britain. Madan Lal Dhingra, associated with India House, assassinated Curzon Wyllie, an official connected with the Council of the Secretary of State for India, in London in 1909.

Ghadar Party Movement (1913–1917)

The Ghadar movement emerged among Indians, particularly Punjabis, settled in the United States and Canada. The Hindustan Association of the Pacific Coast was founded in San Francisco in June 1913 by Lala Har Dayal and Sohan Singh Bhakna. The movement published the Ghadar newspaper, edited by Lala Har Dayal, and aimed to wage a revolutionary war against British rule in India. It sought international assistance, including support from anti-British elements in Germany.

Provisional Government of India in Kabul (1915)

In December 1915, Indian revolutionaries established a government-in-exile in Kabul, Afghanistan, to challenge British rule.

• President: Raja Mahendra Pratap

• Prime Minister: Maulavi Barkatullah

• Home Minister: Maulavi Abaidullah Sindhi

• Foreign Minister: Champak Raman Pillai

Madam Bhikaji Cama

Madam Bhikaji Cama was an important figure in the revolutionary movement abroad and is known as the Mother of the Indian Revolution. On 22 August 1907, she attended the Second Socialist Congress at Stuttgart, Germany, where she highlighted the devastating effects of famine in India and advocated equality, human rights, and autonomy from British rule. She unfurled a flag that she described as the Flag of Indian Independence.

Important Revolutionary Literature and Slogans

Inquilab Zindabad: The slogan is attributed to Hasrat Mohani and became a prominent revolutionary war cry.

Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna: An Urdu patriotic poem written by Bismil Azimabadi in 1921 and popularized by Ram Prasad Bismil during the freedom struggle.

Later Revolutionary Activities

Udham Singh (1940)

Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in London on 13 March 1940 to avenge the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. He was convicted and executed at Pentonville Prison on 31 July 1940.

Lakshmi Sahgal and the Indian National Army

Lakshmi Sahgal, popularly known as Captain Lakshmi, was an officer of the Indian National Army and served as Minister of Women's Affairs in the Azad Hind Government. Her participation represented women's involvement in the armed struggle for India's independence during the Second World War.

Significance of Revolutionary Nationalism

Revolutionary nationalism challenged British rule through armed resistance, underground organizations, political propaganda, and international mobilization. It inspired many young Indians to participate in the freedom struggle and helped publicize the demand for independence. Revolutionary nationalists differed from the Gandhian approach regarding the role of violence in achieving freedom.

Revolutionary Nationalism

The rise and growth of revolutionary nationalism in British India were inspired by a combination of political, social, and economic factors. These movements, which emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, represented an alternative to the methods of petitions and negotiations advocated by early nationalists. The movement drew inspiration from a mixture of indigenous traditions and global revolutionary ideas.

The immediate political cause of revolutionary nationalism can be traced back to dissatisfaction with the slow pace of reforms. The Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon was a significant turning point that sparked widespread anger and protests across the country. The division of Bengal was seen by many nationalists as an attempt to divide and rule by splitting the Hindu and Muslim populations. This raised questions about the effectiveness of constitutional and peaceful protests and led some nationalists to seek more direct forms of action against British rule.

The social and cultural forces of the time also contributed to the rise of the revolutionary movement. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a resurgence of cultural nationalism, coupled with a revival of martial traditions in regions such as Punjab, Bengal, and Maharashtra. This revival was partly a response to British cultural imperialism and the derogatory depiction of Indian civilization as passive.

Economic grievances also played a crucial role in promoting revolutionary sentiment among Indians. The exploitative economic policies of the British, which prioritized British industrial interests, led to widespread unemployment and poverty.

The spread of Western education and ideas among the Indian middle class exposed young Indians to revolutionary and democratic ideals. The writings of the Italian revolutionary Mazzini, Irish nationalism, and the success of the Russian Revolution provided inspiration and models for political action.

The Ideology and Programme of Revolutionaries

The ideology of the revolutionary struggle in British India was rooted in a profound sense of nationalism and an urgent call for action against colonial rule. A crucial aspect of their ideology was the emphasis on sacrifice and martyrdom for the nation's cause. The revolutionaries sought to awaken a sense of patriotism among Indians through their deeds and sacrifices, hoping to inspire others to join the struggle for freedom.

The revolutionary struggle was a response by nationalist youth challenging colonialism. It emerged as an alternative form of struggle to the constitutional agitation of the Moderates and the passive resistance advocated by the Extremists.

A fundamental element of revolutionary ideology was the use of violence to create fear among the British. The revolutionaries wanted to initiate an armed struggle against British rule in India. Their programmes were manifested in the assassination of unpopular British officials and the organization of Swadeshi dacoities to raise funds.

The revolutionaries placed heroism and the spirit of self-sacrifice at a very high level of patriotism. In this context, they used rhetorical songs and slogans during the struggle. For example, the famous slogan "Inquilab Zindabad," coined by Hasrat Mohani, inspired revolutionaries such as Bhagat Singh.

The revolutionaries focused on building secret societies to carry out their activities. These societies played a significant role in providing training and planning revolutionary activities.

Another important medium of revolutionary activities was newspapers and journals, which they used as the chief means of spreading revolutionary thought and arousing anti-imperialist sentiment.

While primarily focused on political independence, some revolutionary groups also recognized the importance of social and educational reform as part of their struggle. In this context, they wanted to eradicate social evils, promote education among the masses, and develop a sense of unity and national consciousness beyond individual beliefs about religion and caste.

The Ideology and Programme of Revolutionaries

The ideology of the revolutionary struggle in British India was rooted in a profound sense of nationalism and an urgent call for action against colonial rule. A crucial aspect of their ideology was the emphasis on sacrifice and martyrdom for the nation's cause. The revolutionaries sought to awaken a sense of patriotism among Indians through their deeds and sacrifices, hoping to inspire others to join the struggle for freedom.

The revolutionary struggle was a response by nationalist youth challenging colonialism. It emerged as an alternative form of struggle to the constitutional agitation of the Moderates and the passive resistance advocated by the Extremists.

A fundamental element of revolutionary ideology was the use of violence to create fear among the British. The revolutionaries wanted to initiate an armed struggle against British rule in India. Their programmes were manifested in the assassination of unpopular British officials and the organization of Swadeshi dacoities to raise funds.

The revolutionaries placed heroism and the spirit of self-sacrifice at a very high level of patriotism. In this context, they used rhetorical songs and slogans during the struggle. For example, the famous slogan "Inquilab Zindabad," coined by Hasrat Mohani, inspired revolutionaries such as Bhagat Singh.

The revolutionaries focused on building secret societies to carry out their activities. These societies played a significant role in providing training and planning revolutionary activities.

Another important medium of revolutionary activities was newspapers and journals, which they used as the chief means of spreading revolutionary thought and arousing anti-imperialist sentiment.

While primarily focused on political independence, some revolutionary groups also recognized the importance of social and educational reform as part of their struggle. In this context, they wanted to eradicate social evils, promote education among the masses, and develop a sense of unity and national consciousness beyond individual beliefs about religion and caste.

Revolutionary Nationalism: Background and Characteristics

Revolutionary nationalism developed as one strand of the Indian struggle against British rule from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. Its supporters believed that petitions and gradual constitutional reform were inadequate to end colonial domination. They formed secret societies, circulated revolutionary literature, collected funds, and sometimes used targeted violence against officials or government property. Revolutionary groups were diverse; they did not always share the same ideology, organizational structure, or long-term political programme.

Causes of Revolutionary Nationalism

The slow pace of political reform disappointed sections of educated youth. The Partition of Bengal in 1905 intensified anger and was interpreted by many nationalists as an attempt to divide the population and weaken opposition. Repressive measures against the press and political activists further convinced some young people that peaceful protest alone could not compel the government to concede power.

Economic grievances also mattered. Colonial policies were associated with poverty, unemployment, and the decline of some traditional occupations. Western education exposed students to democratic and revolutionary thought, including the writings of Giuseppe Mazzini and accounts of nationalist struggles in Europe. Irish nationalism and the Russian revolutionary movement were among the international influences discussed by revolutionaries. Cultural nationalism and renewed interest in physical training also shaped some organizations, particularly in Bengal and Maharashtra.

Early Revolutionary Organisations

Chapekar Brothers: In 1896–97, Damodar Hari and Balkrishna Hari Chapekar formed the Vyayam Mandal. On 22 June 1897, Damodar, Balkrishna, and Vasudeo Hari Chapekar assassinated W. C. Rand, the plague commissioner of Pune, and his military escort, Lieutenant Ayerst. The action occurred in the context of resentment over coercive plague-control measures.

Mitra Mela and Abhinav Bharat: V. D. Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Savarkar established Mitra Mela in 1899. It was renamed the Abhinav Bharat Society in 1904 and became associated with revolutionary activity.

Anushilan Samiti: Founded in Bengal in 1902 by Pramathanath Mitra, Anushilan Samiti became an important revolutionary organization. Its networks and affiliated groups helped spread physical training, political education, and revolutionary planning.

Jugantar: Started on 30 March 1906 by Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Abinash Bhattacharyya, and Bhupendra Nath Dutt, Jugantar served as a propaganda organ associated with the revolutionary movement in Bengal. In 1907, the Yugantar group made an unsuccessful attempt against Lieutenant-Governor Fuller.

Major Events in Bengal and Elsewhere

In April 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to assassinate Douglas Kingsford, the district judge of Muzaffarpur. The attempt failed to kill Kingsford. The episode led to a major investigation and trial. Pulin Behari Das organized the Barrah Dacoity in early 1908 at a zamindar's residence in Barrah, Dhaka; he was associated with the Dhaka branch of Anushilan Samiti.

The Alipore Bomb Case (1908–1909), also called the Muraripukur or Manicktolla Conspiracy Case, involved revolutionaries linked to Anushilan Samiti. Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Ghosh, and numerous other nationalists were among those implicated. The case followed the Muzaffarpur incident and involved charges of waging war against the government. It became a landmark in the colonial state's efforts to prosecute revolutionary networks.

The newspapers Jugantar and Bande Mataram helped circulate political ideas. Bande Mataram, an English-language newspaper edited by Sri Aurobindo, faced an attempted sedition prosecution in 1907 and closed in 1908 amid legal and financial pressure. On 21 December 1909, Anant Laxman Kanhere assassinated A. M. T. Jackson, the district magistrate of Nasik; the case became known as the Nasik Conspiracy Case.

On 23 December 1912, revolutionaries attempted to assassinate Viceroy Lord Hardinge during the procession marking the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi. A bomb was thrown at the Viceroy's howdah in Chandni Chowk. Rash Behari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal were associated with the conspiracy.

Revolutionary Organisations in the 1920s

The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was established at Kanpur in October 1924 by revolutionaries, including Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad, Yogendra Shukla, and Sachindranath Sanyal. It aimed to overthrow British rule through armed revolution and establish a Federal Republic of the United States of India.

In August 1925, HRA members carried out the Kakori train action to obtain government funds for revolutionary activities. The subsequent arrests and trials dealt a serious blow to the organization, and several leaders were executed.

In September 1928, the organization was reorganized as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Bhagwati Charan Vohra were among the important figures. The new name reflected the growing influence of socialist ideas. On 17 December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev, and Azad were involved in the killing of police officer J. P. Saunders, intended as retaliation for the lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai during protests against the Simon Commission.

On 8 April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs into the Central Legislative Assembly. The action was designed to make a political statement rather than cause mass casualties; they stayed to be arrested and used the trial to publicize revolutionary ideas. Hunger strikes by political prisoners drew attention to prison conditions and unequal treatment. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were executed in March 1931.

Revolutionaries Abroad

Shyamji Krishna Varma established India House in London, which became a centre for expatriate Indian nationalists. Madam Bhikaji Cama promoted the cause of Indian independence abroad and displayed an early Indian nationalist flag at an international socialist gathering in 1907. The Ghadar movement, organized by expatriate Indians and launched in 1913, sought to overthrow British rule, particularly through a planned uprising during the First World War. A provisional government of India was also proclaimed in Kabul in 1915 by Indian nationalists abroad.

Role of Women in Revolutionary Nationalism

Women participated in revolutionary networks, carried messages, sheltered activists, and sometimes took direct action. Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Datta were associated with the Chittagong revolutionary movement. The participation of women challenged assumptions about the gendered boundaries of political action, although their contributions were not always given equal recognition in contemporary accounts.

Historical Significance and Limitations

Revolutionary nationalists displayed courage, sacrifice, and a willingness to confront colonial power. Their actions attracted attention to political repression, inspired some young people, and kept the demand for independence alive when constitutional politics appeared ineffective. Socialist strands also brought questions of class and social transformation into the nationalist debate.

Their limitations included small memberships, secrecy, limited capacity to sustain mass participation, and the state's ability to infiltrate organizations and impose severe punishments. Individual attacks could not, by themselves, dismantle the colonial state. Revolutionary nationalism should therefore be understood as one important strand of a wider movement that also included mass non-violent mobilization, labour organizing, constitutional politics, and peasant struggles.