Formation of Indian National Congress: Factors Responsible
The formation of the Congress in 1885 was a significant development in the history of India's freedom struggle. It marked the beginning of organised political activism in India and laid the foundation for the subsequent struggle against British colonial rule. Its formation was influenced by a combination of factors, including the rise in political consciousness among Indians, the socio-economic changes under British rule, the role of the British administration, and the efforts of Indian and British intellectuals.
The spread of western education during British rule played a crucial role in the emergence of a new class of educated Indians. This group was familiar with European political ideas such as democracy, liberty, and freedom, which shaped their understanding of governance and colonialism. Educated Indians began to realise the discriminatory and exploitative nature of British rule, and they wanted political reforms to address their grievances.
The British economic policies had a devastating impact on Indian agriculture, industry, and crafts, which caused discontent among the educated middle class, who recognised the need for political representation to express their grievances.
The introduction of railways, the telegraph, and a modern postal system by the British helped improve communication among different parts of India, allowing Indians to exchange ideas and come together, thereby creating a sense of unity and national consciousness.
Several early political organisations laid the groundwork for the formation of the Congress. These included the British Indian Association (1851), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870), and the Indian Association (1876). The Indian National Congress represented an effort to unite these organisations and provide a national platform for political discussion and debate.
A crucial factor in the formation of the INC was the period of Lord Lytton and Lord Ripon as Viceroys of India, from 1876–1880 and 1880–1884, respectively. One popular historical explanation for the formation of the INC is the theory of the Safety Valve. According to this theory, the British government, concerned about the growing discontent and nationalist sentiment in India, established the INC as a safety valve to channel Indian grievances in a peaceful and controlled manner. According to this view, A.O. Hume acted as an agent of the British government, facilitating the creation of the INC to serve as a safety valve. However, there is limited evidence to suggest that the British government planned the formation of the INC as a safety valve. While Hume's involvement is well established, calling his actions a British conspiracy is not supported by concrete evidence. Hume's actions were based on his genuine concern for the welfare of Indians and his belief in liberal political principles. Reducing his role to that of a British agent oversimplifies his contribution.
The formation of the INC was driven by the genuine aspirations of educated Indians for political representation, social reform, and economic justice. It reflected the growing political consciousness and organisational abilities of the Indian middle-class intelligentsia.
The Moderate Phase: Ideology, Programme, and Methods
The Moderates believed in constitutional methods and wanted to achieve their goals through legal and peaceful means. They sent petitions to the British Parliament and used the press to raise their demands. They engaged in dialogue and diplomacy with British officials, believing that they could bring about gradual change through persuasion and negotiations.
The Moderates organised meetings and conferences to mobilise public opinion and gain support for their causes. These gatherings helped spread nationalist ideas and develop a sense of collective identity. They used the press effectively to spread their views, criticise colonial policies, and educate the masses about their rights and responsibilities. The Moderates supported the spread of modern idea
s of government and modern education. They believed that education was the key to empowering Indians and preparing them to demand a better form of government. They emphasised the need for enlightenment and rational thinking, and encouraged Indians to adopt modern values and practices.
The Moderates showed a strong belief in the British sense of justice. They demonstrated allegiance to the British and had faith in their mission regarding the upliftment of Indians. They believed that the British could be persuaded to introduce reforms for India. The basic task of the Moderates was to formulate demands, present them to the government, and put pressure on it to acknowledge them by convincing the government of the fairness of their demands.
The Congress under the Moderates laid great emphasis on propagating Indian grievances in England. Moderate leaders highlighted Indian demands in England. For example, Dadabhai Naoroji spent a significant part of his active political life popularising India's case in England. In 1889, the Congress formed a separate committee in London to raise awareness about Indian issues in Britain, influence British public opinion, present the Indian perspective, and counter misinformation about Indian governance. The first chairperson of the committee was William Wedderburn, and the first secretary was William Digby. This committee started publishing information to shape British understanding of Indian problems.
The Extremist Phase: Ideology, Programme, and Methods
The Extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice and generosity. They adopted extra-constitutional means and methods. The Extremist leaders did not use violence, but they took a sympathetic view of the activities of revolutionaries.
They emphasised mass organisation and had faith in the strength and power of the masses. They planned to achieve Swaraj through mass action. They used methods such as mass demonstrations, protests, and agitation. They placed emphasis on the assertive and aggressive pursuit of rights and fighting for those rights.
They called for the boycott of British goods, institutions, and services. This included avoiding British clothes, schools, courts, and other services. They promoted the establishment of national schools and colleges to provide education free from colonial influence. They also encouraged people to settle disputes through indigenous arbitration instead of relying on British courts.
The Extremists emphasised Swaraj, which meant self-government and, ultimately, independence from British rule.
They rejected the idea of gradual reform and demanded immediate and complete independence. While largely non-violent, the Extremists advocated active resistance against British policies. They extensively used newspapers and journals to spread nationalist ideas and criticise colonial policies. Leaders such as Tilak used publications such as Kesari and Maratha to reach a wider audience.
The Extremists sought to revive and promote Indian culture, traditions, and religious practices. They believed that a strong sense of cultural identity was essential to building a strong national identity. For example, Tilak popularised the celebration of the Ganesh festival (1893) and the Shivaji festival (1894) to unite people and develop a deep sense of pride and cultural unity. These festivals became occasions for public meetings and nationalist speeches.
There was a fundamental change in the nature of Indian nationalism under Extremist leadership due to their forceful articulation of the demand for Swaraj and their use of more radical methods than those of the Moderates. In this context, they aroused a sense of cultural nationalism, with national identity shaped by cultural traditions rather than by the concept of common ancestry or race.
The Partition of Bengal (1905) and Swadeshi Movement
The partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon was a significant event in the history of British India, marking a turning point in the nationalist movement against British rule. The official reason given for the partition was to improve administrative efficiency in the vast province, which at that time included Bihar and parts of Odisha. Bengal was the largest and most populous province in British India. The British, however, claimed that its size and administrative complexities made it difficult to govern effectively.
The partition had deep political motives and far-reaching consequences, sparking widespread nationalist agitation that had a profound impact on India's struggle for independence. The partition was intended to weaken the nationalist movement in Bengal by dividing the region into a predominantly Muslim eastern half and a predominantly Hindu western half. Curzon hoped to arouse communal sentiment, thereby diluting the nationalist challenge to British rule.
The announcement of the partition by Curzon led to intense opposition from the people of Bengal. The Swadeshi Movement, which advocated the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made goods, was formally launched on 7th August 1905.
The day of partition, i.e., 16th October 1905, was observed in Bengal as a day of mourning (Shok Diwas) and as Raksha Bandhan Day, on the suggestion of Rabindranath Tagore. Similarly, R. S. Trivedi called for the observance of Arandhan, i.e., not cooking food at home. The movement gave tremendous impetus to Indian industry. The Bengal Chemical factory was established by P. C. Ray, and the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was started by V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The Tata Iron and Steel Company was founded in 1907 by Jamsetji Tata. A significant revival was witnessed in handloom weaving, silk weaving, and many other traditional handicrafts.
The nationalists formulated a programme for promoting national education. In this context, the National Council of Education was founded by Satish Chandra Mukherjee, and Bengal National College was established by Aurobindo Ghosh. The University of Calcutta was declared Gulam Khana by Indian students protesting during the Swadeshi Movement.
The Swadeshi Movement also witnessed the rise of nationalist aspirations through songs such as Vande Mataram and Amar Sonar Bangla. Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata in 1905, based on the concept popularised by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in his book Anandamath.
The Surat Split (1907): Causes and Consequences
At the heart of the split were the ideological differences between the Moderates and the Extremists within the Congress. The partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon and the Swadeshi Movement that followed further intensified the divide between the two groups. The Moderates wanted limited protests, whereas the Extremists wanted an aggressive mass movement. This divide was further aggravated by issues such as conflicts over leadership and the definition of Swaraj. Finally, disagreements over the choice of president at Surat led to a physical clash and a split.
The immediate consequence of the split was the weakening of the Congress as a party and a united political force. Within the party, its ability to mount an effective challenge to British rule was significantly weakened.
The split led to discontent among the youth, and some sections of the population within the Congress became dissatisfied. This contributed to the rise of revolutionary groups in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, and other parts of India, which sought to achieve independence through armed struggle and acts of violence against British officials.
Indian National Congress: Early Development and Overview
The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 and provided a national platform for political discussion. Its formation marked a major shift from regional associations towards an organisation that could formulate common demands for different parts of India. A. O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, played an important organisational role, while Indian leaders supplied the political initiative, participation, and agenda that allowed the Congress to develop.
First Session and Early Leadership
The first session was held in Bombay in December 1885, with Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee as president. The meeting brought together delegates from different provinces. Early Congress sessions discussed representation in legislative councils, the Indianisation of the civil services, expenditure, administrative accountability, and civil rights. The organisation initially depended heavily on annual sessions, resolutions, petitions, and public discussion; its capacity to mobilise large numbers of ordinary people expanded substantially in later decades.
The Safety-Valve Interpretation
One interpretation holds that Hume and sympathetic British officials encouraged the Congress as a safety valve through which growing Indian dissatisfaction could be expressed peacefully. This interpretation has been influential in historical debate, but it should not be treated as a fully proven account of the Congress's origin. Hume's role is well established; the stronger claim that the British government deliberately created the Congress as a controlled conspiracy is not demonstrated by conclusive evidence. The aspirations of educated Indians for political representation, economic justice, and administrative reform were themselves central to the organisation's emergence.
Moderate Methods and Objectives
The early Congress leadership is generally described as Moderate. The Moderates believed that political reform could be advanced through constitutional and peaceful methods. They used petitions, resolutions, speeches, newspapers, deputations, and appeals to British public opinion. They often assumed that exposing administrative injustice and demonstrating the reasonableness of Indian demands would encourage reform.
Their methods included:
Presenting Indian grievances to the government and Parliament.
Demanding wider representation in legislative councils.
Seeking simultaneous or fairer opportunities in civil-service examinations.
Criticising excessive military expenditure and the financial burden imposed on India.
Defending civil liberties and freedom of the press.
Promoting modern education and administrative reform.
Publicising India's economic difficulties in Britain.
Dadabhai Naoroji was especially important in explaining the economic consequences of colonialism. His Drain Theory argued that a portion of India's wealth flowed out of the country without an equivalent return. Congress leaders also sought to influence opinion in Britain. A London committee was established in 1889 to communicate Indian concerns, and the organisation used publications and political contacts to challenge one-sided accounts of colonial administration.
Moderate politics helped establish a shared national platform, trained a generation in public debate, and made economic exploitation a subject of organised political criticism. Its limitations were also clear: its social base was narrow, its methods relied on appeals to colonial authorities, and its immediate demands generally sought reform rather than complete independence.
The Rise of Assertive Nationalism
By the end of the nineteenth century, some nationalists had grown dissatisfied with the slow pace and limited results of constitutional agitation. They argued that the British government responded to organised pressure rather than appeals to justice alone. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai became associated with a more assertive approach. Their politics stressed self-reliance, mass mobilisation, Swadeshi, and the willingness to resist unjust colonial measures.
The distinction between Moderates and Extremists should not be oversimplified. Both opposed colonial injustice and sought greater Indian political power, but they differed over methods, the pace of change, and the extent to which popular resistance should be used. The assertive nationalists placed greater emphasis on boycott, national education, indigenous enterprise, and passive resistance.
Partition of Bengal (1905) Overview
Lord Curzon's partition of Bengal, announced in 1905, became a turning point. The colonial government defended the measure on administrative grounds, but nationalists saw it as an attempt to weaken political unity by dividing Bengal along communal and regional lines. The decision triggered protests, public meetings, Swadeshi campaigns, and boycott campaigns. Indian-made goods were promoted, while foreign goods were boycotted. National education initiatives sought to reduce dependence on government institutions.
The movement widened political participation and gave new force to songs, symbols, public festivals, and local mobilisation. It also exposed disagreements over strategy within the Congress. The partition was annulled in 1911, but the movement had already transformed nationalist politics.
Surat Split (1907) Overview
Tensions between the Moderates and Extremists intensified over the direction of the Congress, leadership, and the adoption of more confrontational methods. The dispute culminated in the Surat Split of 1907. The division weakened the organisation in the short term and allowed the colonial government to act against assertive nationalists. However, it also reflected the growth of political expectations that could no longer be contained within the older Moderate programme.
Importance of the Congress in This Period
The Congress helped create an all-India political vocabulary and made constitutional reform, civil rights, economic exploitation, and representation common subjects of debate. The Moderate phase built organisational foundations, while the rise of assertive nationalism broadened the range of political action. The partition agitation demonstrated the potential of boycott and Swadeshi, while the Surat Split revealed the challenges of maintaining unity across different political strategies. These experiences shaped the next phase of the national movement, including the Home Rule agitation and Gandhian mass politics.
Early Constitutional Acts: Indian Councils Acts of 1861 and 1892
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was an early step in the restoration and reorganisation of legislative councils after the uprising of 1857. It added a fifth member to the Viceroy's Executive Council and formalised the portfolio system, under which members were assigned particular departments. For legislative purposes, the Viceroy's Council could be enlarged by nominated members, with a proportion of non-official members. Indians were nominated to these councils, but the councils had no meaningful control over the executive or public finance. The Act restored legislative powers to the presidencies of Bombay and Madras and allowed legislative councils to be established in other provinces. The Governor-General could issue ordinances during emergencies, subject to a limited period of validity.
The Indian Councils Act of 1892 increased the number of additional members in the central and provincial legislative councils. Some non-official members were selected through an indirect electoral process involving provincial councils and bodies such as municipalities, district boards, universities, and chambers of commerce, although the law did not openly establish direct elections. Members could discuss financial statements and ask questions on public matters after giving notice, but they could not move binding resolutions on the budget. The reforms therefore widened discussion while preserving executive dominance.
These Acts are important in the longer history of nationalism because they exposed the limits of colonial constitutional reform. Indian representatives could raise questions but could not make the executive responsible to elected members. Nationalists increasingly demanded broader representation, more powers for councils, and eventually responsible government. The limited reforms also gave Indian politicians experience in legislative debate, which later became useful in Congress and Swarajist strategies.
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